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Original Articles

Influence and intercultural exchange: Engineers, engineering schools and engineering works in the nineteenth century

Pages 163-177 | Published online: 30 Jun 2008

References

  • Borges , Jorge Luis . 1964 . “Kafka and His Precursors,” . In Other Inquisitions 1937–1952 , 108 Austin, Texas : U. of Texas Pr. .
  • Pacey , Arnold . 1990 . Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand Year History , vii – viii . 24 119 – 20 . 207 Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press .
  • Stapleton , Darwin H. 1987 . The Transfer of Early Industrial Technologies to America , 2 Philadelphia : American Philosophical Society .
  • Hindle , Brooke and Lubar , Steven . 1986 . Engines of Change: The American Industrial Revolution, 1790–1860 , 71 – 72 . Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Inst. Pr. . refer to “reverse transfer.”
  • Kroeber , A. L. 1940 . “Stimulus Diffusion,” . American Anthropologist , 42 : 1 – 2 . 20
  • Eiffel , G. 1900 . Travaux scientifiques exécutés à la Tour de trois cents mètres de 1889 à 1900 , 229 Paris : L. Maretheux . Nordling awarded the contract to Eiffel to build viaducts over the Neuvial (1868) and the Sioule (1869) in the department of Allier, on the Orleans Railroad, Commentry to Gannat line. Eiffel made a contribution to the design of the connection hardware of the towers, rather than design of the towers themselve; on the other hand, he probably determined the St. Andrew's‐cross configuration of the bridge spans
  • Lemoine , Bertrand . 1984 . Gustave Eiffel , 32 34 Paris : Fernand Hazan .
  • Nordling , Wilhelm . 1864 . “Mémoire sur les piles en charpente métallique des grands viaducs,” . Annales des ponts et chaussées , 4 ( 2 ) : 1 – 126 . [Also printed separately, Paris: Dunod, 1864];
  • 1870 . “Documents relatifs aux viaducs metalliques de la ligne de Commentary à Gannat,” . Annales des ponts et chaussées , 4 ( 1 ) : 125 – 87 . [Also printed separately, Paris: Dunod, 1870]
  • Birk , A. 1925 . Männer der Technik Edited by: Matschoss , Conrad . 191 Berlin This brief description does not provide a complete list of Nordling's accomplishments. Some biographical information can be found in
  • von Roll , ed. 1915 . Enzykopädie des Eisenbahnwesens, , 2 ed. , Vol. 7 , 364 – 65 . Berlin : Vienna . Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon, 143;
  • 1908 . Österreichische Eisenbhanzeitung , 31 : 255 See also Marrey, cited in the next note
  • Marrey , Bernard . 1990 . Les Ponts Modernes: 18e‐ 19e siècles , 210 – 212 . 310 Paris? : Picard .
  • Kranaids , Eda . 1989 . “Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the Nineteenth Century,” . Social Studies of History , 19 : 16
  • Billington , David P. 1983 . The Tower and the Bridge , 93 N.Y. : Basic Books .
  • Picon , Antoine . 1992 . L ‘invention de l'ingénieur moderne: l'Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées 1747–1851 , 465 Paris : Presses de l'Ecole des ponts et Chaussées . in a section entitled “Le rayonnement de l'Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées.”
  • Town , Ithiel and Patent , Letters . 1820 . “Containing a description in the words of the said Ithiel’ Town himself of his improvement in Bridges,” . 28 January
  • Patent , Letters . 1835 . “Containing a description in the words of the said Ithiel Town, himself of his improvement on his bridge patented the 28th day of January,” . 3 April Both patents may be found in the U.S. National Archives
  • Both vertical members and arches were, however, sometimes introduced by other engineers
  • 1821 . A Description of Ithiel Town's Improvement in the Construction of Wood and Iron Bridges: Intended as a General System of Bridge‐Building for Rivers, Creeks, and Harbours of Whatever Kind of Bottoms; and for any Practicable Width of Span or Opening, in Every Part of the Country , New Haven : S. Converse . Town used the term “mode” in his first sales brochure
  • Ferguson , Euguene S. 1992 . Engineering and the Mind's Eye , Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press . Editorial restrictions do not allow a sample listing of publications that featured the lattice bridge to be printed here. Re the diffusion of published images, see
  • Latour , Bruno . 1990 . “Drawing Things Together,” . In Representation in Scientific Practice , Edited by: Lynch , Michael and Woolgar , Steve . 19 – 68 . Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press .
  • Dreicer , Gregory K. 1992 . “Nouvelles inventions: l'interchangeabilité et le génie national,” . Culture Technique , 26 : 213 – 220 . In French, pont à poutres droites en treillis; in German, Gitterbrücke or Fachwerkbrücke; in English lattice or truss bridge. See The term “American bridge” appeared too often to be cited here. During the nineteenth century, various structures, machines, and systems were at the time of their introduction given national labels. In the case of framed bridges, the characterization lasted for decades.
  • Long , Stephen H. 1836 . Description of Col. Long's Bridges, Together with a Series of Directions to Bridge Builders , 40 N.H. : John F. Brown .
  • Prévost , Lewis M. Jr. 1842 . “Description of Howe's Patent Truss Bridge, Carrying the Western Railroad over the Connecticut River at Springfield, Massachusetts,"/ouma/ . of the Franklin Institute , : 292 3d Ser. 3
  • Scheffler , H. 1857 . “Über eine verbesserte Konstruktion eiserner Gitterbrücken,” . Organ für die Fortschritte des Eisenbahnwesens in Technischer Beziehung , 12 : 227 – 236 . 20 Bavarian engineer Mohnié received his patent in 1857: “Der Unterzeichnete hatte Gelegenheit, viele eiserne Town'sche Gitterbrücken beobachten und untersuchen zu können”; Johann Mohnié, with Commentary by
  • Haupt , Herman . 1851 . General Theory of Bridge Construction, Containing Demonstrations of the Principles of the Art and their Application to Practice , 148 – 57 . New York : D. Appleton .
  • Culmann , Karl . 1851 . “Der Bau der hölzeren Brücken in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika ... in den Jahren 1849 und 1850,” . Allgemeine Bauleitung , 16 : 69 – 129 . pls. 387–97; excerpted in
  • 1851 . Polytechnisches Centralblatt , : 1492 – 97 . NF5
  • 1851 . Eisenbahnzeitung , 9 : 165 – 6 .
  • Culmann , Karl . 1852 . “Der Bau der eisernen Brücken in England und Amerika,” . Allgemeine Bauzeitung , 17 : 163 – 222 . pl. 478–487. Regarding D. J. Jourawski's activity in St. Petersburg
  • Timoshenko , Stephen P. 1953 . History of Strength of Materials: With a Brief Account of the History of Theory of Elasticity and Theory of Structures , New York : McGraw‐Hill . reprint, New York: Dover, 1983, 141–44, 186–89; Jourawski's object of analysis (1844–1850) was a Howe‐lattice
  • Doyne , William Thomas and Blood , William Bindon . 1851 . “An Investigation of the Strains Upon the Diagonals of Lattice Beams, with the Resulting Formulae,” . Transactions of Institution of Civil Engineers , 11 : 1 – 14 . Doyne and Blood, like Whipple and Haupt, used the “method of joints” for analysis (Timoshenko, 186). In his theoretical treatise
  • 1860 . Neue Theorie der allgemein als der zweckmäßigsten, vollkommensten und wohlfeilsten anerkannten nordamerikanischen Brücken‐Konstrudionen, nach Town's, Long's and Howe's System, wie auch ihrer in der neuesten Zeit erfundenen Vereinfachung und Verbesserung um Neville und Clark auf eine originelle, leicht faßliche Weise (Ohne höhere Mathematik) dargestellt , 1st ed. , Prague : Johann Spurny . 1857
  • Sigourney , Lydia H. 1839 . The Residence and Library of IthielTown, Esq.,” . Ladies’ Companion , 10 : 122 – 26 . Town was a bibliomaniac who amassed a huge library; see
  • Grubenmann's bridge appeared in too many publications to be listed here; re de l'Orme, see Dreicer, “Nouvelles inventions.”
  • Molloy , Peter Michael . 1975 . “Techical Education and the Young Republic: West Point as America's Ecole Polytechnique, 1802–1833” . 450 Brown University . (Ph.D. Thesis, Sganzin's text was used, according to Molloy, until 1834.
  • Sganzin , J. M. 1809 . Programme ou résumé des leçons d'un cours de constructions, , 2 ed. 194 Paris
  • Poussin , Guillaume Tell . 1834/6 . Travaux d'améliorations intérieures projetés ou executees par les gouverement général des Etats‐Unis d'Amérique de 1824 à 1831 , 63 – 66 . Paris : Anselin et Carillan‐Goeury . Poussin worked in North America between 1817 and 1832, pi. 10;
  • Lehrritter , H.F. , ed. 1836/7 . Öffentliche Bauwerke in den vereinigten Staaten von Amerika , Vol. 2 , 219 – 223 . Regensburg : Friedrich Pustet .
  • Sganzin , B.J.M. and Reibell . 1839–41 . Programme ou résumé des leçons d'un cours de constructions, , 4th ed. , 334 – 35 . 242 – 244 . Paris : Carilion‐Goeury & Dalmont . rev. [Félix]
  • Emy , A. R. Traité de l'art de la charpenterie , Vol. 2 , 399 – 401 . Paris : Carilian‐Goeury et Anselin . 1 837, 1 841) pl. 136.
  • Emmery , H.C. 1837 . “Analyse et extrait des Lettres sur l'Amérique du nord, du M. Michel Chevalier; des deux ouvrages de M. Poussin, intitulés, le premier, Travaux d'améliorations intérieures, projetés ou exécutés aux Etats‐Unis, de 1824 à 1831, et le second, Chemins defer américains,” . Annales des ponts et chaussées , 1 ( 2 ) 99101; pl. 134
  • Garella , J. H. 1842 . “Note sur deux ponts provisoires en charpente construits dans le système américain de M. Town,” . Annales des ponts et chaussées , 212 : 371 – 83 . pl. 34. For Garella's remarks, see Archives nationales F14, 2231
  • Mahan , D. H. 1837 . An Elementary Treatise of Civil Engineering , 2d ed. , N. Y. : Wiley and Putnam . :1838; London: Wiley and Putnam, 1839). A description of the Town and Howe bridges is finally included in the U.S. edition of 1846
  • Molloy , Per . “Technical Education,” . 451 Mahan used lithographed notes from Metz as part of instruction at West Point
  • C. P. 1881 . "Dr. Carl Culmann,” . Eisenbahn , 15 : 49 – 50 . Culmann's uncle was a professor at Metz; he completed his studies at Karlsruhe in 1841
  • Meyer , M.J. 1882 . “Le professeur Culmann,” . Mémoires et comptes rendus des travaux de la Société des Ingénieurs civils , : 111 – 115 . pl.; Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la Suisse (1924);
  • Turak , T. 1986 . William Le Baron Jenny: A Pioneer of Modern Architecture 25 – 55 . Ann Arbor, Michigan Re Jenny, see
  • Picon . Invention , 139 – 45 . 457 – 464 . Re the difficulties in the hierarchy, see
  • Malo , Léon . 1873 . Notice sur Eugène Flachat , 9 – 10 . Paris : Société des ingénieurs civils . Re Seguin family, see note 25. “La véritable école professionnelle de M. FJachat... fut la fréquentation des ingénieurs anglais”;, See Marrey, Ponts, 304–312, for capsule biographies of several industrialist engineers; detailed information on their activities is not readily available. Gouin graduated from the Ecole polytechnique and Ponts et chaussées, but did not remain in the state system.
  • Weiss , John Hubbel . 1982 . The Making of Technological Man , 182 – 87 . Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press . passim; 144–45
  • Weiss . The Making of Technological Man , 5
  • Once constructed in iron or with vertical members, however, the nature of the structure was in many cases different than that of the original design
  • Gasparini , D. A. and Provost , Caterina . 1989 . “Early Nineteenth Century Developments in Truss Design in Britain, France and the United States,” . Construction History , 5 : 21 – 33 . The Fink bridge appears in most surveys of bridges built in the United States. See also:
  • Collins , Randall . 1979 . The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification 1 – 21 . New York Weiss, Making, 5, provides the following citations:
  • Berg , Ivar . 1971 . Education and Jobs: The Great Training Robbery Boston For this reason, histories of educational institutions written by persons professionally linked to these institutions must be read with care, and in some cases, with skepticism. See also
  • Lundgreen . “Engineering Education,” . 33 – 34 .
  • Picon . “Sciences et techniques entretiennent des rapports tantôt étroits, tantôt plus distants. Leur autonomie est particulièrement prononcée dans le domaine de l'aménagement et de la construction.” . Invention , 15
  • Cotte , Michel . 1988 . “Seguin et Cie (1806–1824): du négoce familial de drap à la construction du pont suspendu de Tournon‐Tain,” . History and Technology , 6 : 95 – 144 .
  • Billington , David . 1979 . Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering , 24 47 91 Princeton, N.J. : Princeton U. Pr. .
  • Kranakis . “Social,” . 38 Kranakis takes Eiffel's pro‐theory and nationalistic rhetoric at face value
  • Cooper , Theodore . 1889 . “American Railroad Bridges,” . Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers , 21 : 43 Town (1839), 6.
  • Zeldin , Theodore . 1980 . France 1848–1945: Intellect and Pride , 140 – 41 . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • Lundgreen , Peter . 1980 . “ The Organization of Science and Technology in France: A German Perspective,” . In The Organization of Science and Technology in France 1808–1914 , Edited by: Fox , Robert and Weisz , George . 323 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Lundgreen . “Engineering Education,” . 46
  • Latour , Bruno . “Drawing Things Together,” . 55 “Far from being the key to the understanding of science and technology, these entities [e.g. “state” or “culture"] are the very things a new understanding of science and technology should explain.”

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