Changing employment subcenters and opportunity in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area

References

• Agarwal, A., Giuliano, G., & Redfearn, C. (2012). Strangers in our midst: The usefulness of exploring polycentricity. The Annals of Regional Science, 48(2), 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-012-0497-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anas, A., Arnott, R., & Small, K. A. (1998). Urban spatial structure. Journal of Economic Literature, 36(3), 1426–1464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antipova, A., & Ozdenerol, E. (2013). Using longitudinal employer dynamics (LED) data for the analysis of Memphis Aerotropolis, Tennessee. Applied Geography, 42, 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.04.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appold, S. J. (2015). The impact of airports on U.S. urban employment distribution. Environment & Planning A, 47(2), 412–429. https://doi.org/10.1068/a130114p
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appold, S. J., & Kasarda, J. D. (2013). The airport city phenomenon: Evidence from large U.S. airports. Urban Studies, 50(6), 1239–1259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098012464401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer, W., & Smith, M. T. (1993). Why do suburban offices cluster? Geographical Analysis, 25(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1993.tb00279.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baerwald, T. J. (1978). The emergence of a new downtown. Geographical Review, 68(3), 308–318. https://doi.org/10.2307/215049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, B. J. L. (1963). Commercial structure and commercial blight: Retail patterns and process in the city of Chicago (Department of Geography Research Paper 85). University of Chicago.
   Google Scholar
• Bogart, W., & Ferry, W. (1999). Employment centres in greater Cleveland: Evidence of evolution in a formerly monocentric city. Urban Studies, 36(12), 2099–2110. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098992566
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boschmann, E. (2011). Job access, location decision, and the working poor: A qualitative study in the Columbus, Ohio, metropolitan area. Geoforum, 42(6), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2011.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckwalter, D. (2019). Intra-metropolitan employment distribution in a no-growth scenario: Pittsburgh 2002–2012. Middle-States Geographer, 72, 48–59.
   Google Scholar
• Casello, J. M., & Smith, T. E. (2006). Transportation activity centers for urban transportation analysis. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 132(4), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9488(2006)132:4(247)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervero, R., & Wu, K.-L. (1997). Polycentrism, commuting, and residential location in the San Francisco Bay area. Environment & Planning A, 29(5), 865–886. https://doi.org/10.1068/a290865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervero, R. (2001). Efficient urbanization: Economic performance and the shape of the metropolis. Urban Studies, 38(10), 1651–1671. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980120084804
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christaller, W. (1966). Central places in Southern Germany ( Translated from Die Zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland by C.W. Baskin, Trans.). Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Coe, R. (2002, September 12–14). What effect size is and why it is important [ Paper Presentation]. The Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Exeter.
   Google Scholar
• Coffey, W. J., & Shearmur, R. G. (2001). Intrametropolitan employment distribution in Montreal, 1981–1996. Urban Geography, 22(2), 106–129. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.22.2.106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, S., Kolhase, J., & Perdue, A. (2016). Empirical polycentricity: The complex relationship between employment centers. Journal of Regional Science, 56(1), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12208
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deitrick, S. (2015). Cultural change in Pittsburgh: A demographic analysis at city and county scales. The Pennsylvania Geographer, 53(2), 71–92.
   Google Scholar
• Ding, C., & Bingham, R. D. (2000). Beyond edge cities: Job decentralization and urban sprawl. Urban Affairs Review, 35(6), 837–855. https://doi.org/10.1177/10780870022184705
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding, N., & Bagchi-Sen, S. (2019). An analysis of commuting distance and job accessibility for residents in a U.S. legacy city. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 109(5), 1560–1582. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2019.1580133
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erickson, R., & Gentry, M. (1985). Suburban nucleations. Geographical Review, 75(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/214575
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forstall, R. L., & Greene, R. P. (1997). Defining job concentrations: The Los Angeles case. Urban Geography, 18(8), 705–739. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.18.8.705
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler, C. S., & Jensen, L. (2020). Bridging the gap between geographic concept and the data we have: The case of labor markets in the U.S.A. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 52(7), 1395–1414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X20906154
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funderburg, R. G., & Boarnet, M. G. (2008). Agglomeration potential: The spatial scale of industry linkages in the southern California economy. Growth and Change, 39(1), 24–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2257.2007.00404.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garracho-Rango, C., Alvare-Lobato, J., & Chavez, T. (2013). Calculating intraurban agglomeration of economic units with planar and network K-functions: A comparative analysis. Urban Geography, 34(2), 261–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2013.778655
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano, G., & Redfearn, C. (2007). Employment concentrations in Los Angeles, 1980–2000. Environment & Planning A, 39(12), 2935–2957. https://doi.org/10.1068/a393
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano, G., Redfearn, C., Agarwal, A. J., & He, S. (2012). Network accessibility and employment centers. Urban Studies, 49(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098011411948
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano, G., & Small, K. (1991). Subcenters in the Los Angeles region. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 21(2), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-0462(91)90032-I
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano, G., & Small, K. (1999). The determinants of growth of employment subcenters. Journal of Transport Geography, 7(3), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(98)00043-X
   Google Scholar
• Giuliano, G. (1989). New directions for understanding transportation and land use. Environment & Planning A, 21(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1068/a210145
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gong, H., & Wheeler, J. (2002). The location and suburbanization of business and professional services in the Atlanta metropolitan area. Growth and Change, 33(3), 341–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2257.00194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, P., & Richardson, H. (1996). Beyond polycentricity: The dispersed metropolis, Los Angeles, 1970–1990. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62(3), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944369608975695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, R. K. (2007). Airports and economic development. Real Estate Economics, 35(1), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6229.2007.00183.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, D. L. (1980). Urban subcenters: Recent trends in urban spatial structure. Growth and Change, 11(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2257.1980.tb00427.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, R. P. (2008). Urban peripheries as organizers of what remains of the center: Examining the evidence from Los Angeles and Chicago. Urban Geography, 29(2), 138–153. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.29.2.138
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutierrez, J., Cardozo, O., & Garcia-Palomares, J. C. (2011). Transit ridership forecasting at station level: An approach based on distance-decay weighted regression. Journal of Transport Geography, 19(6), 1081–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.05.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helbich, M., & Leitner, M. (2010). Postsuburban spatial evolution of Vienna’s urban fringe: Evidence from point process modelling. Urban Geography, 31(8), 1100–1117. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.31.8.1100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L. (2014). Changing job access for the poor: Effects of spatial and socioeconomic transformations in Chicago 1990–2010. Urban Studies, 51(4), 675–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098013492229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L., & Giuliano, G. (2017). Poverty concentration, job access, and employment outcomes. Journal of Urban Affairs, 39(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/juaf.12152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, Y., & Downs, J. (2019). Measuring and visualizing place-based space-time job accessibility. Journal of Transport Geography, 74, 278–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.12.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huggett, R. (1980). Systems analysis in geography. Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Isserman, A. (1977). The location quotient approach to estimating regional economic impacts. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 43(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944367708977758
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin, J., & Paulsen, K. (2018). Does accessibility matter? Understanding the effect of job accessibility on labor market outcomes. Urban Studies, 55(1), 91–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098016684099
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson, B., & Quigley, J. M. (2004). Agglomeration and networks in spatial economics. Papers in Regional Science, 83(1), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10110-003-0181-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasu, B. B., & Chi, G. (2018). The evolving and complementary impacts of transportation infrastructures on population and employment change in the United States 1970–2010. Population Research and Policy Review, 37(6), 1003–1029. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-018-9491-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie, T. F., & O’huallacháin, B. (2006). Polycentric phoenix. Economic Geography, 82(2), 167–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2006.tb00295.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel, R., & Eliot-Hurst, M. (1968). A systems analytic approach to economic geography ( Commission on College Geography Publication Number 8). Association of American Geographers.
   Google Scholar
• McDonald, J. F., & Prather, P. (1994). Suburban employment centers: The case of Chicago. Urban Studies, 31(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420989420080201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrew, J. C., Jr., Lembo, A., & Monroe, C. (2014). An introduction to statistical problem solving in geography (3rd ed.). Waveland Press.
   Google Scholar
• McMillen, D. P. (2003). Employment subcenters in Chicago: Past, present, and future. Economic Perspectives, 2Q, 2–14.
   Google Scholar
• McMillen, D. P. (2001). Nonparametric employment subcenter identification. Journal of Urban Economics, 50(3), 448–473. https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.2001.2228
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMillen, D. P., & Smith, S. C. (2003). The number of subcenters in large urban areas. Journal of Urban Economics, 53(3), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-1190(03)00026-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijers, E., & Burger, M. (2010). Spatial structure and productivity in US metropolitan areas. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 42(6), 1383–1402. https://doi.org/10.1068/a42151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melo, P. C., Graham, D. J., Levinson, D., & Arabi, S. (2017). Agglomeration, accessibility, and productivity evidence for large metropolitan areas in the U.S. Urban Studies, 54(1), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098015624850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, M. M., Gibson, L. J., & Wright, N. G. (1991). Location quotient: A basic tool for economic development analysis. Economic Development Review, 9(2), 65–68.
   Google Scholar
• Muller, P. O. (2017). Transportation and urban form: Stages in the spatial evolution of the American metropolis. In G. Giuliano & S. Hanson (Eds.), The geography of urban transportation (4th ed., pp. 57–85). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Niedzielski, M., & Boschmann, E. (2015). Travel time and distance as relative accessibility in the journey to work. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 104(6), 1156–1182. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2014.958398
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’huallachain, B., & Leslie, T. (2013). Spatial pattern and order in Sunbelt retailing: Shopping in Phoenix in the twenty-first century. The Professional Geographer, 65(34), 396–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2012.681587
   Google Scholar
• Redfearn, C. L. (2009). Persistence in urban form: The long-run durability of employment centers in metropolitan areas. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 39(2), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2008.09.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Repenning, N. P. (2003). Selling system dynamics to (other) social scientists. System Dynamics Review, 19(4), 303–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.278
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, S., & Strange, W. (2003). Geography, industrial organization, and agglomeration. Review of Economics and Statistics, 85(2), 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465303765299882
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schleith, D., & Horner, M. J. (2014). Commuting, job clusters, and travel burdens: Analysis of spatially and socioeconomically disaggregated longitudinal employer-household dynamics data. Transportation Research Record, 2452(1), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.3141/2452-03
   Google Scholar
• Shearmur, R. (2006). Travel from home: An economic geography of commuting distances in Montreal. Urban Geography, 27(4), 330–359. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.27.4.330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shearmur, R. (2013). What is urban structure? The challenges of forseeing 21st century patterns of the urban economy. In C. Garrocho (Ed.), Advances in commercial geography: Prospects, methods, and applications (pp. 95–142). El Colegio Mexiquens.
   Google Scholar
• Shearmur, R., & Coffey, W. (2002). Urban employment subcenters and sectoral clustering in Montreal: Complementary approaches to the study of urban form. Urban Geography, 23(2), 103–130. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.23.2.103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shearmur, R., Coffey, W., Dube, C., & Barbonne, R. (2007). Intra-metropolitan employment structure: Polycentricity, scatteration, dispersal and chaos in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver, 1996–2001. Urban Studies, 44(9), 1713–1738. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980701426640
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, Q. (1998). Location characteristics of inner-city neighborhoods and employment accessibility of low-wage workers. Environment and Planning B, 25(3), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1068/b250345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, Q. (2001). A spatial analysis of job openings and access in a U.S. metropolitan area. Journal of the American Planning Association, 67(1), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360108976355
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, V., & Waddell, P. (1991). Firm location and land use in discrete urban space: A study of the spatial structure of Dallas-Fort Worth. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 21(2), 225–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-0462(91)90035-L
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sultana, S., & Weber, J. (2007). Journey to work patterns in the age of sprawl: Evidence from two midsize southern metropolitan areas. The Professional Geographer, 59(2), 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00607.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandersmissen, M.-H., Villeneuve, P., & Theriault, M. (2003). Analyzing changes in urban form and commuting time. The Professional Geographer, 55(4), 446–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.5504004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, J., French, S., Holt, J., & Zhang, X. (2012). Measuring the structure of U.S. metropolitan areas, 1970–2000: Spatial statistical metrics and an application to commuting behavior. Journal of the American Planning Association, 78(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2012.677382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar