Advanced search
Publication Cover
Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences Volume 39, 2020 - Issue 4
Submit an article Journal homepage
21,687
Views
59
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Phylogeny and Evolution of the Brown Algae

Trevor T. Bringloea School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaCorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-5976-6700View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Samuel Starkob Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, CanadaView further author information
,
Rachael M. Wadec Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USAView further author information
,
Christophe Vieirad Kobe University Research Center for Inland Seas, Rokkodai, Kobe, JapanView further author information
,
Hiroshi Kawaid Kobe University Research Center for Inland Seas, Rokkodai, Kobe, JapanView further author information
,
Olivier De Clercke Department of Biology, Phycology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-3699-8402View further author information
ORCID Icon,
J. Mark Cockf Algal Genetics Group, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, FranceORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2650-0383View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Susana M. Coelhof Algal Genetics Group, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, FranceView further author information
,
Christophe Destombeg Evolutionary Biology and Ecology of Algae, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Universidad Austral de Chile, UMI 3614, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, FranceORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5656-9659View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Myriam Valerog Evolutionary Biology and Ecology of Algae, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Universidad Austral de Chile, UMI 3614, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, FranceORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9000-1423View further author information
ORCID Icon,
João Neivah Centre for Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Faro, PortugalORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-5927-4570View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Gareth A. Pearsonh Centre for Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Faro, PortugalORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-0768-464XView further author information
ORCID Icon,
Sylvain Faugerong Evolutionary Biology and Ecology of Algae, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Universidad Austral de Chile, UMI 3614, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France;i Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, ChileORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7258-5229View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Ester A. Serrãoh Centre for Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Faro, PortugalView further author information
&
Heroen Verbruggena School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6305-4749View further author information
ORCID Icon show all
Pages 281-321 | Published online: 27 Jul 2020

References

  • Abbott, I. A., and Huisman, J. M. 2003. New species, observations, and a list of new records of brown algae (Phaeophyceae) from the Hawaiian Islands. Phycological Res. 51: 173–185.
  • Abbott, R. J., Barton, N. H., and Good, J. M. 2016. Genomics of hybridization and its evolutionary consequences. Mol. Ecol. 25: 2325–2332.
  • Addico, G. N. D., and deGraft-Johnson, K. A. A. 2016. Preliminary investigation into the chemical composition of the invasive brown seaweed Sargassum along the West Coast of Ghana. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 15: 2184–2191.
  • Ahmed, S., Cock, J. M., Pessia, E., Luthringer, R., Cormier, A., Robuchon, M., Sterck, L., Peters, A. F., Dittami, S. M., Corre, E., Valero, M., Aury, J.-M., Roze, D., Van de Peer, Y., Bothwell, J., Marais, G. A. B., and Coelho, S. M. 2014. A haploid system of sex determination in the brown alga Ectocarpus sp. Curr. Biol. 24: 1945–1957.
  • Arnaud-Haond, S., Duarte, C. M., Diaz-Almela, E., Marbà, N., Sintes, T., and Serrão, E. Á. 2012. Implications of extreme life span in clonal organisms: millenary clones in meadows of the threatened seagrass Posidonia oceanica. PLoS One 7: e30454.
  • Arun, A., Coelho, S. M., Peters, A. F., Bourdareau, S., Pérès, L., Scornet, D., Strittmatter, M., Lipinska, A. P., Yao, H., Godfroy, O., Montecinos, G. J., Avia, K., Macaisne, N., Troadec, C., Bendahmane, A., and Cock, J. M. 2019. Convergent recruitment of TALE homeodomain life cycle regulators to direct sporophyte development in land plants and brown algae. ELife 8: e43101.
  • Assis, J., Araújo, M. B., and Serrão, E. Á. 2018. Projected climate changes threaten ancient refugia of kelp forests in the North Atlantic. Glob. Chang. Biol. 24: e55–e66.
  • Assis, J., Coelho, N. C., Lamy, T., Valero, M., Alberto, F., and Serrão, E. Á. 2016. Deep reefs are climatic refugia for genetic diversity of marine forests. J. Biogeogr. 43: 833–844.
  • Assis, J., Serrão, E. Á., Coelho, N. C., Tempera, F., Valero, M., and Alberto, F. 2018. Past climate changes and strong oceanographic barriers structured low–latitude genetic relics for the golden kelp Laminaria ochroleuca. J. Biogeogr. 45: 2326–2336.
  • Augyte, S., Lewis, L., Lin, S., Neefus, C. D., and Yarish, C. 2018. Speciation in the exposed intertidal zone: the case of Saccharina angustissima comb. nov. & stat. nov. (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 57: 100–112.
  • Avia, K., Coelho, S. M., Montecinos, G. J., Cormier, A., Lerck, F., Mauger, S., Faugeron, S., Valero, M., Cock, J. M., and Boudry, P. 2017. High-density genetic map and identification of QTLs for responses to temperature and salinity stresses in the model brown alga Ectocarpus. Sci. Rep. 7: 43241.
  • Avia, K., Lipinska, A., Mignerot, L., Montecinos, A., Jamy, M., Ahmed, S., Valero, M., Peters, A., Cock, J., Roze, D., and Coelho, S. 2018. Genetic diversity in the UV sex chromosomes of the brown alga Ectocarpus. Genes 9: 286.
  • Bachtrog, D., Mank, J. E., Peichel, C. L., Kirkpatrick, M., Otto, S. P., Ashman, T.-L., Hahn, M. W., Kitano, J., Mayrose, I., Ming, R., Perrin, N., Ross, L., Valenzuela, N., and Vamosi, J. C, Tree of Sex Consortium. 2014. Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it? PLOS Biol. 12: e1001899.
  • Baker, H. G. 1955. Self-compatibility and establishment after “long-distance” dispersal. Evolution 9: 347–349.
  • Barner, A. K., Pfister, C. A., and Wootton, J. T. 2011. The mixed mating system of the sea palm kelp Postelsia palmaeformis: few costs to selfing. Proc. Biol. Sci. 278: 1347–1355.
  • Bartsch, I., Wiencke, C., Bischof, K., Buchholz, C. M., Buck, B. H., Eggert, A., Feuerpfeil, P., Hanelt, D., Jacobsen, S., Karez, R., Karsten, U., Molis, M., Roleda, M. Y., Schubert, H., Schumann, R., Valentin, K., Weinberger, F., and Wiese, J. 2008. The genus Laminaria sensu lato: Recent insights and developments. Euro. J. Phycol. 43: 1–86.
  • Belcher, J. H., Carter, C. F., and Peters, A. F. 2009. An unknown filamentous brown alga (Phaeophyceae) from a domestic freshwater aquarium in Northampton UK. Phycologist 77: 13.
  • Bell, G. 1982. The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics on Sexuality. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, USA.
  • Bell, G. 1997. The evolution of the life cycle of brown seaweeds. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 60: 21–38.
  • Bellwood, D. R., Hughes, T. P., and Hoey, A. S. 2006. Sleeping functional group drives coral-reef recovery. Curr. Biol. 16: 2434–2439.
  • Bennett, S., Wernberg, T., Connell, S. D., Hobday, A. J., Johnson, C. R., and Poloczanska, E. S. 2016. The ‘Great Southern Reef’: social, ecological and economic value of Australiás neglected kelp forests. Mar. Freshwater Res. 67: 47–56.
  • Bennett, S., Wernberg, T., Joy, B. A., De Bettignies, T., and Campbell, A. H. 2015. Central and rear-edge populations can be equally vulnerable to warming. Nat. Commun. 6: 1–7.
  • Bennion, M., Fisher, J., Yesson, C., and Brodie, J. 2019. Remote sensing of kelp (Laminariales, Ochrophyta): monitoring tools and implications for wild harvesting. Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac. 27: 127–141.
  • Billot, C., Engel, C.R., Rousvoal, S., Kloare, G. B., and Valero, M. 2003. Current patterns, habitat discontinuities and population genetic structure: the case of the kelp Laminaria digitata in the English Channel. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 253: 111–121.
  • Bittner, L., Payri, C. E., Couloux, A., Cruaud, C., de Reviers, B., and Rousseau, F. 2008. Molecular phylogeny of the Dictyotales and their position within the Phaeophyceae, based on nuclear, plastid and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 49: 211–226.
  • Blanchette, C. A., Miner, B. G., and Gaines, S. D. 2002. Geographic variability in form, size and survival of Egregia menziesii around Point Conception, California. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 239: 69–82.
  • Bologna, P., and Steneck, R. 1993. Kelp beds as habitat for American lobster Homarus americanus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 100: 127–134.
  • Bolton, J.J. 2010. The biogeography of kelps (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae): a global analysis with new insights from recent advances in molecular genetics. Helgol. Mar. Res. 64: 263–279.
  • Bolton, J. J., Germann, I., and Luning, K. 1983. Hybridization between Atlantic and Pacific representatives of the Simplices section of Laminaria (Phaeophyta). Phycologia 22: 133–140.
  • Bourdareau, S., Tirichine, L., Lombard, B., Loew, D., Coelho, S. M., and Cock, J. M. 2020. Histone modifications during the life cycle of the brown alga Ectocarpus. BioRxiv. 980763.
  • Brady, S. P., Bolnick, D. I., Angert, A. L., Gonzalez, A., Barrett, R. D. H., Crispo, E., Derry, A. M., Eckert, C. G., Fraser, D. J., Fussmann, G. F., Guichard, F., Lamy, T., McAdam, A. G., Newman, A. E. M., Paccard, A., Rolshausen, G., Simons, A. M., and Hendry, A. P. 2019. Causes of maladaptation. Evol. Appl. 12: 1229–1242.
  • Braje, T. J., Dillehay, T. D., Erlandson, J. M., Klein, R. G., and Rick, T. C. 2017. Finding the first Americans. Science. 358: 592–594.
  • Braun, A. 1855. Algarum unicellularium genera nova et minus cognita praemissis observationibus de algis unicellularibus in genere. Apud W. Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany.
  • Bringloe, T. T., and Saunders, G. W. 2018. Mitochondrial DNA sequence data reveal the origins of postglacial marine macroalgal flora in the Northwest Atlantic. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 589: 45–58.
  • Bringloe, T. T., and Saunders, G. W. 2019. DNA barcoding of the marine macroalgae of Nome, Alaska (Northern Bering Sea) reveals many trans-Arctic species. Polar Biol. 42: 851–864.
  • Bringloe, T. T., Bartlett, C. A.B., Bergeron, E. S., Cripps, K. S.A., Daigle, N. J., Gallagher, P. O., Gallant, A. D., Giberson, R. O. J., Greenough, S. J., Lamb, J. M., Leonard, T. W., MacKay, J. A., McKenzie, A. D., Persaud, S. M., Sheng, T., Mills, A. M. E. S., Moore, T. E., and Saunders, G. W. 2018. Detecting Alaria esculenta and Laminaria digitata (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) gametophytes in red algae, with consideration of distribution patterns in the intertidal zone. Phycologia 57: 1–8.
  • Bringloe, T. T., Verbruggen, H., and Saunders, G. W. 2020. Population structure in Arctic marine forests is shaped by diverse recolonisation pathways and far northern glacial refugia. BioRxiv. 999466.
  • Briones-Fourzán, P., and Lozano-Álvarez, E. 2001. The importance of Lobophora variegata (Phaeophyta: Dictyotales) as a habitat for small juveniles of Panulirus argus (Decapoda: Palinuridae) in a tropical reef lagoon. Bull. Mar. Sci. 68: 207–219.
  • Brodie, J., Chan, C. X., De Clerck, O., Cock, J. M., Coelho, S. M., Gachon, C., Grossman, A. R., Mock, T., Raven, J. A., Smith, A. G., Yoon, H. S., and Bhattacharya, D. 2017. The algal revolution. Trends Plant Sci. 22: 726–738.
  • Brown, J. W., and Sorhannus, U. L. F. 2010. A molecular genetic timescale for the diversification of autotrophic stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): substantive underestimation of putative fossil ages. PLoS One 5: e12759.
  • Bruno de Sousa, C., Cox, C. J., Brito, L., Pavão, M. M., Pereira, H., Ferreira, A., Ginja, C., Campino, L., Bermejo, R., Parente, M., and Varela, J. 2019. Improved phylogeny of brown algae Cystoseira (Fucales) from the Atlantic-Mediterranean region based on mitochondrial sequences. PLoS One 14: e0210143.
  • Bruno, J., and Bertness, M. 2001. Habitat modification and facilitation in benthic marine communities. In Marine Community Ecology; Bertness, M., Gaines, S., and Hay, M., Eds. Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, UK, pp. 201–218.
  • Bull, J. J. 1983. Evolution of Sex Determining Mechanisms. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, California, USA.
  • Burki, F., Roger, A. J., Brown, M. W., and Simpson, A. G. B. 2020. The new tree of Eukaryotes. Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.) 35: 43–55.
  • Burrowes, R., Rousseau, F., Müller, D. G., and de Reviers, B. 2003. Taxonomic placement of Microzonia (Phaeophyceae) in Syringodermatales based on rbcL and 28S nrDNA sequences. Cryptog. Algol. 24: 63–73.
  • Camacho, O., Fernández-García, C., Vieira, C., Gurgel, C. F. D., Norris, J. N., Freshwater, D. W., and Fredericq, S. 2019. The systematics of Lobophora (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) in the western Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans: eight new species. J. Phycol. 55: 611–624.
  • Camacho, O., Sauvage, T., and Fredericq, S. 2018. Taxonomic transfer of Syringoderma to Microzonia (Syringodermataceae, Syringodermatales), including a new record of Microzonia floridana comb. nov. for the Gulf of Mexico. Phycologia 57: 413–421.
  • Cánovas, F. G., Mota, C. F., Serrão, E. Á., and Pearson, G. A. 2011. Driving south: a multi-gene phylogeny of the brown algal family Fucaceae reveals relationships and recent drivers of a marine radiation. BMC Evol. Biol. 11: 371.
  • Chan, A. 2018. DNA barcode and phylogenetic analyses of Sphacelariales (Phaeophyceae) emphasizing Canada and contiguous coastal areas. Honours thesis, University of New Brunswick, Canada.
  • Charrier, B., Abreu, M. H., Araujo, R., Bruhn, A., Coates, J. C., De Clerck, O., Katsaros, C., Robaina, R. R., and Wichard, T. 2017. Furthering knowledge of seaweed growth and development to facilitate sustainable aquaculture. New Phytol. 216: 967–975.
  • Charrier, B., Coelho, S. M., Le Bail, A., Tonon, T., Michel, G., Potin, P., Kloareg, B., Boyen, C., Peters, A. F., and Cock, J. M. 2008. Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research. New Phytol. 177: 319–332.
  • Cho, G. Y., Lee, S. H., and Boo, S. M. 2004. A new brown algal order, Ishigeales (Phaeophyceae), established on the basis of plastid protein-coding rbcL, psaA, psbA region comparisons. J. Phycol. 40: 921–936.
  • Clayton, M. N. 1987. Isogamy and a fucalean type of life history in the Antarctic brown alga Ascoseira mirabilis (Ascoseirales, Phaeophyta). Bot. Mar. 30: 447–454.
  • Clayton, M. N. 1988. Evolution and life histories of brown algae. Bot. Mar. 31: 379–387.
  • Cock, J. M., Godfroy, O., Macaisne, N., Peters, A. F., and Coelho, S. M. 2014. Evolution and regulation of complex life cycles: a brown algal perspective. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 17: 1–6.
  • Cock, J. M., Sterck, L., Rouzé, P., Scornet, D., Allen, A. E., Amoutzias, G., Anthouard, V., Artiguenave, F., Aury, J.-M., Badger, J. H., Beszteri, B., Billiau, K., Bonnet, E., Bothwell, J. H., Bowler, C., Boyen, C., Brownlee, C., Carrano, C. J., Charrier, B., Cho, G. Y., Coelho, S. M., Collén, J., Corre, E., Da Silva, C., Delage, L., Delaroque, N., Dittami, S. M., Doulbeau, S., Elias, M., Farnham, G., Gachon, C. M. M., Gschloessl, B., Heesch, S., Jabbari, K., Jubin, C., Kawai, H., Kimura, K., Kloareg, B., Küpper, F. C., Lang, D., Le Bail, A., Leblanc, C., Lerouge, P., Lohr, M., Lopez, P. J., Martens, C., Maumus, F., Michel, G., Miranda-Saavedra, D., Morales, J., Moreau, H., Motomura, T., Nagasato, C., Napoli, C. A., Nelson, D. R., Nyvall-Collén, P., Peters, A. F., Pommier, C., Potin, P., Poulain, J., Quesneville, H., Read, B., Rensing, S. A., Ritter, A., Rousvoal, S., Samanta, M., Samson, G., Schroeder, D. C., Ségurens, B., Strittmatter, M., Tonon, T., Tregear, J. W., Valentin, K., von Dassow, P., Yamagishi, T., Van de Peer, Y., and Wincker, P. 2010. The Ectocarpus genome and the independent evolution of multicellularity in brown algae. Nature 465: 617–621.
  • Cock, J. M., Peters, A. F., and Coelho, S. M. 2011. Brown algae. Curr. Biol. 21: R573–5.
  • Cock, J. M., Sterck, L., Ahmed, S., Allen, A. E., Amoutzias, G., Anthouard, V., Artiguenave, F., Arun, A., Aury, J.-M., Badger, J. H., Beszteri, B., Billiau, K., Bonnet, E., Bothwell, J. H., Bowler, C., Boyen, C., Brownlee, C., Carrano, C. J., Charrier, B., Cho, G. Y., Coelho, S. M., Collén, J., Le Corguillé, G., Corre, E., Dartevelle, L., Da Silva, C., Delage, L., Delaroque, N., Dittami, S. M., Doulbeau, S., Elias, M., Farnham, G., Gachon, C. M. M., Godfroy, O., Gschloessl, B., Heesch, S., Jabbari, K., Jubin, C., Kawai, H., Kimura, K., Kloareg, B., Küpper, F. C., Lang, D., Le Bail, A., Luthringer, R., Leblanc, C., Lerouge, P., Lohr, M., Lopez, P. J., Macaisne, N., Martens, C., Maumus, F., Michel, G., Miranda-Saavedra, D., Morales, J., Moreau, H., Motomura, T., Nagasato, C., Napoli, C. A., Nelson, D. R., Nyvall-Collén, P., Peters, A.F., Pommier, C., Potin, P., Poulain, J., Quesneville, H., Read, B., Rensing, S. A., Ritter, A., Rousvoal, S., Samanta, M., Samson, G., Schroeder, D. C., Scornet, D., Ségurens, B., Strittmatter, M., Tonon, T., Tregear, J.W., Valentin, K., von Dassow, P., Yamagishi, T., Rouzé, P., Van de Peer, Y., and Wincker, P. 2012. Chapter five – the Ectocarpus genome and brown algal genomics: the Ectocarpus genome consortium. Adv. Bot. Res. 64: 141–184.
  • Coelho, S. M., Godfroy, O., Arun, A., Le Corguillé, G., Peters, A. F., and Cock, J. M. 2011. OUROBOROS is a master regulator of the gametophyte to sporophyte life cycle transition in the brown alga Ectocarpus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 108: 11518–11523.
  • Coelho, S. M., Gueno, J., Lipinska, A. P., Cock, J. M., and Umen, J. G. 2018. UV chromosomes and haploid sexual systems. Trends Plant Sci. 23: 794–807.
  • Coelho, S. M., Peters, A. F., Charrier, B., Roze, D., Destombe, C., Valero, M., and Cock, J. M. 2007. Complex life cycles of multicellular eukaryotes: new approaches based on the use of model organisms. Gene 406: 152–170.
  • Coelho, S. M., Scornet, D., Rousvoal, S., Peters, N., Dartevelle, L., Peters, A. F., and Cock, J. M. 2012. Ectocarpus: a model organism for the brown algae. Cold Spring Harb. Protoc. 2012: 193–198.
  • Coleman, M. A., and Wernberg, T. 2017. Forgotten underwater forests: the key role of fucoids on Australian temperate reefs. Ecol. Evol. 7: 8406–8418.
  • Connell, S. D. 2003a. The monopolization of understorey habitat by subtidal encrusting coralline algae: a test of the combined effects of canopy-mediated light and sedimentation. Mar. Biol. 142: 1065–1071.
  • Connell, S. D. 2003b. Negative effects overpower the positive of kelp to exclude invertebrates from the understorey community. Oecologia 137: 97–103.
  • Cormier, A., Avia, K., Sterck, L., Derrien, T., Wucher, V., Andres, G., Monsoor, M., Godfroy, O., Lipinska, A., Perrineau, M.-M., Van De Peer, Y., Hitte, C., Corre, E., Coelho, S. M., and Cock, J. M. 2017. Re-annotation, improved large-scale assembly and establishment of a catalogue of noncoding loci for the genome of the model brown alga Ectocarpus. New Phytol. 214: 219–232.
  • Couceiro, L., Le Gac, M., Hunsperger, H. M., Mauger, S., Destombe, C., Cock, J. M., Ahmed, S., Coelho, S. M., Valero, M., and Peters, A. F. 2015. Evolution and maintenance of haploid-diploid life cycles in natural populations: the case of the marine brown alga Ectocarpus. Evolution 69: 1808–1822.
  • Coyer, J. A., Hoarau, G., Oudot-Le Secq, M. P., Stam, W. T., and Olsen, J. L. 2006. A mtDNA-based phylogeny of the brown algal genus Fucus (Heterokontophyta; Phaeophyta). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 39: 209–222.
  • Coyer, J. A., Hoarau, G., Van Schaik, J., Luijckx, P., and Olsen, J. L. 2011. Trans-Pacific and trans-Arctic pathways of the intertidal macroalga Fucus distichus L. reveal multiple glacial refugia and colonizations from the North Pacific to the North Atlantic. J. Biogeogr. 38: 756–771.
  • Coyer, J. A., Peters, A. F., Hoarau, G., Stam, W. T., and Olsen, J. L. 2002. Inheritance patterns of ITS1, chloroplasts and mitochondria in artificial hybrids of the seaweeds Fucus serratus and F. evanescens (Phaeophyceae). Euro. J. Phycol. 37: 173–178.
  • Crow, J. F., and Kimura, M. 1965. Evolution in sexual and asexual populations. Am. Nat. 99: 439–450.
  • Dayton, P. K. 1985. Ecology of kelp communities. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16: 215–245.
  • De Clerck, O., Leliaert, F., Verbruggen, H., Lane, C. E., De Paula, J. C., Payo, D. A., and Coppejans, E. 2006. A revised classification of the Dictyoteae (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) based on rbcL and 26S ribosomal DNA sequence analyses. J. Phycol. 42: 1271–1288.
  • De Reviers, B., Rousseau, F., and Draisma, S. G. A. 2007. Classification of the Phaeophyceae from past to present and current challenges. In Unravelling the Algae, the past, Present, and Future of Algal Systematics; Brodie, J., and Lewis, J., Eds. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 267–284.
  • De Széchy, M. T. M., Guedes, P. M., Baeta-Neves, M. H., and Oliveira, E. N. 2012. Verification of Sargassum natans (Linnaeus) Gaillon (Heterokontophyta: Phaeophyceae) from the Sargasso Sea off the coast of Brazil. Check List 8: 638–641.
  • Deniaud-Bouët, E., Kervarec, N., Michel, G., Tonon, T., Kloareg, B., and Hervé, C. 2014. Chemical and enzymatic fractionation of cell walls from Fucales: insights into the structure of the extracellular matrix of brown algae. Ann. Bot. 114: 1203–1216.
  • Derelle, R., López-García, P., Timpano, H., and Moreira, D. 2016. A phylogenomic framework to study the diversity and evolution of Stramenopiles (=Heterokonts). Mol. Biol. Evol. 33: 2890–2898.
  • Destombe, C., Godin, J., Nocher, M., Richerd, S., and Valero, M. 1993. Differences in response between haploid and diploid isomorphic phases of Gracilaria verrucosa (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) exposed to artificial environmental conditions. Hydrobiologia 261: 131–137.
  • Destombe, C., Valero, M., Vernet, P., and Couvet, D. 1989. What controls haploid-diploid ratio in the red alga Gracilaria verrucosa. J. Evolution. Biol. 2: 317–338.
  • Dittami, S. M., Corre, E., Brillet-Guéguen, L., Lipinska, A. P., Pontoizeau, N., Aite, M., and Avia, K. 2020. The genome of Ectocarpus subulatus - a highly stress-tolerant brown alga. Mar. Genom. 52: 100740.
  • Dittami, S. M., Gravot, A., Goulitquer, S., Rousvoal, S., Peters, A. F., Bouchereau, A., Boyen, C., and Tonon, T. 2012. Towards deciphering dynamic changes and evolutionary mechanisms involved in the adaptation to low salinities in Ectocarpus (brown algae). Plant J. 71: 366–377.
  • Dittami, S. M., Heesch, S., Olsen, J. L., and Collén, J. 2017. Transitions between marine and freshwater environments provide new clues about the origins of multicellular plants and algae. J. Phycol. 53: 731–745.
  • Draisma, S. G. A., Ballesteros, E., Rousseau, F., and Thibaut, T. 2010. DNA sequence data demonstrate the polyphyly of the genus Cystoseira and other Sargassaceae genera (phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 46: 1329–1345.
  • Draisma, S. G. A., and Prud'homme Van Reine, W. F. 2001. Onslowiaceae fam. nov. (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 37: 647–649.
  • Draisma, S. G. A., Prud’homme van Reine, W., and Kawai, H. 2010. A revised classification of the Sphacelariales (Phaeophyceae) inferred from a psbC and rbcL based phylogeny. Europ. J. Phycol. 45: 308–326.
  • Drobnitch, S. T., Jensen, K. H., Prentice, P., and Pittermann, J. 2015. Convergent evolution of vascular optimization in kelp (Laminariales). Proc. Biol. Sci. 282: 20151667.
  • Druehl, L. D. 1988. Cultivated edible kelp. In Algae and Human Affairs; Lembi, C. A., and Waaland, J. R., Eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 119–134.
  • Duggins, D. O., Simenstad, C. A., and Estes, J. A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. Science 245: 170–173.
  • Dunton, K. H., and Schell, D. M. 1986. Seasonal carbon budget and growth of Laminaria solidungula in the Alaskan High Arctic. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 31: 57–66.
  • Ellegren, H., and Parsch, J. 2007. The evolution of sex-biased genes and sex-biased gene expression. Nat. Rev. Genet. 8: 689–698.
  • Emerson, J. J., Kaessmann, H., Betrán, E., and Long, M. 2004. Extensive gene traffic on the mammalian X chromosome. Science 303: 537–540.
  • Erlandson, J. M., Braje, T. J., Gill, K. M., and Graham, M. H. 2015. Ecology of the kelp highway: did marine resources facilitate human dispersal from Northeast Asia to the Americas? J. Isl. Coast. Archaeol. 10: 392–411.
  • Estes, J. A., Burdin, A., and Doak, D. F. 2016. Sea otters, kelp forests, and the extinction of Steller’s sea cow. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 113: 880–885.
  • Estes, J. A., and Steinberg, P. D. 1988. Predation, herbivory, and kelp evolution. Paleobiology 14: 19–36.
  • Excoffier, L., and Ray, N. 2008. Surfing during population expansions promotes genetic revolutions and structuration. Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.). 23: 347–351.
  • Fan, X., Han, W., Teng, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, X., Xu, D., Li, C., Pellegrini, M., Wu, C., Wang, Y., Kaczurowski, M. J. S., Lin, X., Tirichine, L., Mock, T., and Ye, N. 2020. Single-base methylome profiling of the giant kelp Saccharina japonica reveals significant differences in DNA methylation to microalgae and plants. New Phytol. 225: 234–249.
  • Filbee-Dexter, K., Feehan, C. J., and Scheibling, R. E. 2016. Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 543: 141–152.
  • Filbee-Dexter, K., and Wernberg, T. 2018. Rise of turfs: a new battlefront for globally declining kelp forests. BioScience 68: 64–76.
  • Fitton, J. H. 2003. Brown marine algae: a survey of therapeutic potentials. Altern. Complem. Ther. 9: 29–33.
  • Fitton, J. H. 2011. Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers. Mar. Drugs 9: 1731–1760.
  • Fleurence, J., Morançais, M., Dumay, J., Decottignies, P., Turpin, V., Munier, M., Garcia-Bueno, N., and Jaouen, P. 2012. What are the prospects for using seaweed in human nutrition and for marine animals raised through aquaculture? Trends Food Sci. Tech. 27: 57–61.
  • Fox, C. H., and Swanson, A. K. 2007. Nested PCR detection of microscopic life-stages of laminarian macroalgae and comparison with adult forms along intertidal height gradients. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 332: 1–10.
  • Fraser, C. I. 2012. Is bull-kelp kelp? The role of common names in science. New Zeal. J. Mar. Fresh. 46: 279–284.
  • Fraser, C. I., Hay, C. H., Spencer, H. G., and Waters, J. M. 2009. Genetic and morphological analyses of the southern bull kelp Durvillaea antarctica (Phaeophyceae: Durvillaeales) in new zealand reveal cryptic species. J. Phycol. 45: 436–443.
  • Fraser, C. I., McGaughran, A., Chuah, A., and Waters, J. M. 2016. The importance of replicating genomic analyses to verify phylogenetic signal for recently evolved lineages. Mol. Ecol. 25: 3683–3695.
  • Fraser, C. I., Nikula, R., Spencer, H. G., and Waters, J. M. 2009. Kelp genes reveal effects of subantarctic sea ice during the Last Glacial Maximum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 106: 3249–3253.
  • Fraser, C. I., Spencer, H. G., and Waters, J. M. 2009. Glacial oceanographic contrasts explain phylogeography of Australian bull kelp. Mol. Ecol. 18: 2287–2296.
  • Fraser, C. I., Velásquez, M., Nelson, W. A., Macaya, E. C., and Hay, C. H. 2020. The biogeographic importance of buoyancy in macroalgae: a case study of the southern bull-kelp genus Durvillaea (Phaeophyceae), including descriptions of two new species. J. Phycol. 56: 23–36.
  • Fraser, C. I., Winter, D. J., Spencer, H. G., and Waters, J. M. 2010. Multigene phylogeny of the southern bull-kelp genus Durvillaea (Phaeophyceae: Fucales). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 57: 1301–1311.
  • Froehlich, H. E., Afflerbach, J. C., Frazier, M., and Halpern, B. S. 2019. Blue growth potential to mitigate climate change through seaweed offsetting. Curr. Biol. 29: 3087–3093.
  • Fritsch, F. E. 1935. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
  • Fritsch, F. E. 1945. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
  • Fritsch, F. E. 1949. The lines of algal advance. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 24: 94–124.
  • Fry, W. L., and Banks, H. P. 1955. Three new genera of algae from the Upper Devonian of New York. J. Paleontol. 29: 37–44.
  • Fulton, C. J., Abesamis, R. A., Berkström, C., Depczynski, M., Graham, N. A. J., Holmes, T. H., Kulbicki, M., Noble, M. M., Radford, B. T., Tano, S., Tinkler, P., Wernberg, T., and Wilson, S. K. 2019. Form and function of tropical macroalgal reefs in the Anthropocene. Funct. Ecol. 33: 989–999.
  • Funk, D. J., and Omland, K. E. 2003. Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly: frequency, causes, and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34: 397–423.
  • Gattuso, J.-P., Gentili, B., Duarte, C. M., Kleypas, J. A., Middelburg, J. J., and Antoine, D. 2006. Light availability in the coastal ocean: impact on the distribution of benthic photosynthetic organisms and their contribution to primary production. Biogeosciences 3: 489–513.
  • Gavrilets, S. 2003. Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? Evolution 57: 2197–2215.
  • Gavrilets, S., Li, H., and Vose, M. D. 1998. Rapid parapatric speciation on holey adaptive landscapes. Proc. Biol. Sci. 265: 1483–1489.
  • Geoffroy, A., Mauger, S., De Jode, A., Le Gall, L., and Destombe, C. 2015. Molecular evidence for the coexistence of two sibling species in Pylaiella littoralis (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) along the Brittany coast. J. Phycol. 51: 480–489.
  • Gerard, V. A. 1984. The light environment in a giant kelp forest: influence of Macrocystis pyrifera on spatial and temporal variability. Mar. Biol. 84: 189–195.
  • Godfroy, O., Uji, T., Nagasato, C., Lipinska, A. P., Scornet, D., Peters, A. F., Avia, K., Colin, S., Mignerot, L., Motomura, T., Cock, J. M., and Coelho, S. M. 2017. DISTAG/TBCCd1 is required for basal cell fate determination in Ectocarpus. Plant Cell 29: 3102–3122.
  • Goodwillie, C., Kalisz, S., and Eckert, C. G. 2005. The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 36: 47–79.
  • Gordillo, F. J. L., Dring, M. J., and Savidge, G. 2002. Nitrate and phosphate uptake characteristics of three species of brown algae cultured at low salinity. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 234: 111–118.
  • Gouvêa, L. P., Assis, J., Gurgel, C. F. D., Serrão, E. A., Silveira, T. C. L., Santos, R., Duarte, C. M., Peres, L. M. C., Carvalho, V. F., Batista, M., Bastos, E., Sissini, M. N., and Horta, P. A. 2020. Golden carbon of Sargassum forests revealed as an opportunity for climate change mitigation. Sci. Total Environ. 729: 138745.
  • Graham, M. H. 2004. Effects of local deforestation on the diversity and structure of Southern California giant kelp forest food webs. Ecosystems 7: 341–357.
  • Graham, M. H., Kinlan, B. P., Druehl, L. D., Garske, L. E., and Banks, S. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 104: 16576–16580.
  • Graves, J. A. M., and Peichel, C. L. 2010. Are homologies in vertebrate sex determination due to shared ancestry or to limited options? Genome Biol. 11: 205.
  • Guillemin, M.L., Valero, M., Tellier, F., Macaya, E. C., Destombe, C., and Faugeron, S. 2016. Phylogeography of seaweeds in the South East Pacific: complex evolutionary processes along a latitudinal gradient. In Seaweed Phylogeography: adaptation and Evolution of Seaweeds under Environmental Change; Hu, Z.-M., and Fraser, C. I., Eds. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 251–277.
  • Guiry, M., and Guiry, G. 2020. AlgaeBase. http://www.algaebase.org (accessed Feb 2, 2020).
  • Gurgel, C. F. D., Camacho, O., Minne, A. J., Wernberg, T., and Coleman, M. A. 2020. Marine heatwave drives cryptic loss of genetic diversity in underwater forests. Curr. Biol. 30: 1–8.
  • Guzinski, J., Ballenghien, M., Daguin-Thiébaut, C., Lévêque, L., and Viard, F. 2018. Population genomics of the introduced and cultivated Pacific kelp Undaria pinnatifida: Marinas-not farms-drive regional connectivity and establishment in natural rocky reefs. Evol. Appl. 11: 1582–1597.
  • Han, K. Y., Maciszewski, K., Graf, L., Yang, J. H., Andersen, R. A., Karnkowska, A., and Yoon, H. S. 2019. Dictyochophyceae plastid genomes reveal unusual variability in their organization. J. Phycol. 55: 1166–1180.
  • Hargreaves, A.L., Eckert, C.G., and Bailey, J. 2014. Evolution of dispersal and mating systems along geographic gradients: implications for shifting ranges. Funct. Ecol. 28: 5–21.
  • Hausdorf, B. 2011. Progress toward a general species concept. Evolution 65: 923–931.
  • Hay, M. E., Duffy, J. E., Pfister, C. A., and Fenical, W. 1987. Chemical defense against different marine herbivores: are amphipods insect equivalents? Ecology. 68: 1567–1580.
  • Hays, C. G. 2007. Adaptive phenotypic differentiation across the intertidal gradient in the alga Silvetia compressa. Ecology 88: 149–157.
  • Hedgethorne, K., Eustermann, S., Yang, J.-C., Ogden, T. E. H., Neuhaus, D., and Bloomfield, G. 2017. Homeodomain-like DNA binding proteins control the haploid-to-diploid transition in Dictyostelium. Sci. Adv. 3: e1602937.
  • Heesch, S., Cho, G. Y., Peters, A. F., Le Corguillé, G., Falentin, C., Boutet, G., Coëdel, S., Jubin, C., Samson, G., Corre, E., Coelho, S. M., and Cock, J. M. 2010. A sequence-tagged genetic map for the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus provides large-scale assembly of the genome sequence. New Phytol. 188: 42–51.
  • Heesch, S., Serrano-Serrano, M., Luthringer, R., Peters, A. F., Destombe, C., Cock, J. M., and Valero, M. 2019. Evolution of life cycles and reproductive traits: insights from the brown algae. BioRxiv. 530477.
  • Henry, E.C. 1984. Syringodermatales ord. nov. and Syringoderma floridana sp. nov. (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 23: 419–426.
  • Henry, E. C., and Müller, D. G. 1983. Studies on the life history of Syringoderma phinneyi sp. nov. (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 22: 387–393.
  • Hickey, L. J., West, R. M., Dawson, M. R., and Choi, D. K. 1983. Arctic terrestrial biota: paleomagnetic evidence of age disparity with mid-northern latitudes during the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary. Science 221: 1153–1156.
  • Hind, K. R., Starko, S., Burt, J. M., Lemay, M. A., Salomon, A. K., and Martone, P. T. 2019. Trophic control of cryptic coralline algal diversity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 116: 15080–15085.
  • Hoarau, G., Coyer, J. A., Giesbers, M. C. W. G., Jueterbock, A., and Olsen, J. L. 2015. Pre-zygotic isolation in the macroalgal genus Fucus from four contact zones spanning 100–10 000 years: a tale of reinforcement? R. Soc. Open Sci. 2: 140538.
  • Hoarau, G., Coyer, J. A., Veldsink, J. H., Stam, W. T., and Olsen, J. L. 2007. Glacial refugia and recolonization pathways in the brown seaweed Fucus serratus. Mol. Ecol. 16: 3606–3616.
  • Hodge, F. J., Buchanan, J., and Zuccarello, G. C. 2010. Hybridization between the endemic brown algae Carpophyllum maschalocarpum and Carpophyllum angustifolium (Fucales): genetic and morphological evidence. Phycol. Res. 58: 239–247.
  • Hoegh Guldberg, O., Chopin, T., Gaines, S., Haugan, P., Hemer, M., Howard, J., and Konar, M. 2019. The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change: Five Opportunities for Action. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
  • Holbrook, S. J., Carr, M. H., Schmitt, R. J., and Coyer, J. A. 1990. Effect of giant kelp on local abundance of reef fishes: the importance of ontogenetic resource requirements. B. Mar. Sci. 47: 104–114.
  • Hooper, R. G., Henry, E. C., and Kuhlenkamp, R. 1988. Phaeosiphoniella cryophila gen. et sp. nov., a third member of the Tilopteridales (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 27: 395–404.
  • Hori, T. 1971. Survey of pyrenoid distribution in brown algae. Bot. Mag., Tokyo 84: 231–242.
  • Hori, T. 1993. Brown and red algae. Vol. 2. In An Illustrated Atlas of the Life History of Algae; T. Hori, Ed. Uchida Rokakuo, Tokyo, Japan, p. 345. (In Japanese).
  • Hu, Z.-M., Duan, D. L., and Lopez-Bautista, J. 2016. Seaweed phylogeography from 1994–2014: an overview. In Seaweed Phylogeography: Adaptation and Evolution of Seaweeds Under Environmental Change; Hu, Z.-M., and Fraser, C. I., Eds. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp 3–22.
  • Hu, Z.-M., Li, J.-J., Sun, Z.-M., Gao, X., Yao, J.-T., Choi, H.-G., Endo, H., and Duan, D.-L. 2017. Hidden diversity and phylogeographic history provide conservation insights for the edible seaweed Sargassum fusiforme in the Northwest Pacific. Evol. Appl. 10: 366–378.
  • Hughes, J. S., and Otto, S. P. 1999. Ecology and the evolution of biphasic life cycles. Am. Nat. 154: 306–320.
  • Hughes, T., Szmant, A. M., Steneck, R., Carpenter, R., and Miller, S. 1999. Algal blooms on coral reefs: what are the causes? Limnol. Oceanogr. 44: 1583–1586.
  • Hull, C. M., Boily, M.-J., and Heitman, J. 2005. Sex-specific homeodomain proteins Sxi1alpha and Sxi2a coordinately regulate sexual development in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot. Cell 4: 526–535.
  • Hurd, C. L., and Stevens, C. L. 1997. Flow visualization around single- and multiple-bladed seaweeds with various morphologies. J. Phycol. 33: 360–367.
  • Idnurm, A., Walton, F. J., Floyd, A., and Heitman, J. 2008. Identification of the sex genes in an early diverged fungus. Nature 451: 193–196.
  • Ivany, L., Patterson, W. P., and Lohmann, K. C. 2000. Cooler winters as a possible cause of mass extinctions at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. Nature 407: 887–890.
  • Jackson, C., Salomaki, E. D., Lane, C. E., and Saunders, G. W. 2017. Kelp transcriptomes provide robust support for interfamilial relationships and revision of the little known Arthrothamnaceae (Laminariales). J. Phycol. 53: 1–6.
  • Jaenicke, L., Muellar, D. G., and Moore, R. E. 1974. Multifidene and aucantene, C11 hydrocarbons in the male-attracting essential oil from the gynogametes of Cutleria multifida (Smith) Grev. (Phaeophyta). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96: 3324–3325.
  • Jenkyns, H. C., Forster, A., Schouten, S., and Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. 2004. High temperatures in the Late Cretaceous Arctic Ocean. Nature 432: 888–892.
  • Johnson, A., and Koehl, M. 1994. Maintenance of dynamic strain similarity and environmental stress factor in different flow habitats: thallus allometry and material properties of a giant kelp. J. Exp. Biol. 195: 381–410.
  • Kaullysing, D., Gopeechund, A., Mattan-Moorgawa, S., Taleb-Hossenkhan, N., Kulkarni, B., and Bhagooli, R. 2016. Increased density of the corallivore Drupella cornus on Acropora muricata colonies overgrown by Padina boryana. Proceedings of the 13th International Coral Reef Symposium, Honolulu, pp 288–304.
  • Kawai, H. 1986. Life history and systematic position of Akkesiphycus lubricus (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 22: 286–291.
  • Kawai, H. 1989. Life history and systematic position of Heteroralfsia saxicola gen. et comb. nov. (Ralfsiaceae, Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 28: 243–251.
  • Kawai, H., and Kurogi, M. 1985. On the life history of Pseudochorda nagaii (Pseudochordaceae fam. nov.) and its transfer from the Chordariales to the Laminariales (Phaeophyta). Phycologia 24: 289–296.
  • Kawai, H., and Nabata, S. 1990. Life history and systematic position of Pseudochorda gracilis sp. nov. (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 26: 721–727.
  • Kawai, H., and Sasaki, H. 2000. Molecular phylogeny of the brown algal genera Akkesiphycus and Halosiphon (Laminariales), resulting in the circumscription of the new families Akkesiphycaceae and Halosiphonacacea. Phycologia 39: 416–428.
  • Kawai, H., and Sasaki, H. 2004. Morphology, life history, and molecular phylogeny of Stschapovia flagellaris (Tilopteridales, Phaeophyceae) and the erection of the Stschapoviaceae. fam. nov. J. Phycol. 40: 1156–1169.
  • Kawai, H., and Yamada, I. 1990. The specific identity and life history of Japanese Syringoderma (Syringodermatales, Phaeophyceae). Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 103: 325–334.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Ridgway, L. M., and Holser, K. 2013. Ancestral reproductive structure in basal kelp Aureophycus aleuticus. Sci. Rep. 3: 2491.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Bolton, J., and Anderson, R. 2016. Molecular phylogeny of Zeacarpa (Ralfsiales, Phaeophyceae) proposing a new family Zeacarpaceae and its transfer to Nemodermatales. J. Phycol. 52: 682–686.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Draisma, S. G. A., and Müller, D. G. 2007. Molecular phylogeny of Discosporangium mesarthrocarpum (Phaeophyceae) with a reassessment of the Discosporangiales. J. Phycol. 43: 186–194.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Draisma, S. G., Wilce, R. T., and Andersen, R. A. 2015. Molecular phylogeny of two unusual brown algae, Phaeostrophion irregulare and Platysiphon glacialis, proposal of the Stschapoviales ord. nov. and Platysiphonaceae fam. nov., and a re-examination of divergence times for brown algal orders. J. Phycol. 51: 918–928.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Lindeberg, M., and Lindstrom, S. C. 2008. Morphology and molecular phylogeny of Aureophycus aleuticus gen. et sp. nov. (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) from the Aleutian Islands. J. Phycol. 44: 1013–1021.
  • Kawai, H., Hanyuda, T., Yamagishi, T., Kai, A., Lane, C. E., McDevit, D., Küpper, F. C., and Saunders, G. W. 2015. Reproductive morphology and DNA sequences of the brown alga Platysiphon verticillatus support the new combination Platysiphon glacialis. J. Phycol. 51: 910–917.
  • Kawai, H., Maeba, S., Sasaki, H., Okuda, K., and Henry, E. C. 2003. Schizocladia ischiensis: a new filamentous marine chromophyte belonging to a new class, Schizocladiophyceae. Protist 154: 211–228.
  • Kawai, H., Sasaki, H., Maeba, S., and Henry, E. C. 2005. Morphology and molecular phylogeny of Phaeostrophion irregulare (Phaeophyceae) with proposal for Phaeostrophiaceae fam. nov., and a review of Ishigeaceae. Phycologia 44: 169–182.
  • Kawai, H., Suzuki, M., Saunders, G. W., and Hanyuda, T. 2019. Taxonomic study of the brown algal genus Chorda (Chordaceae, Laminariales) with description of the new species Chorda borealis from Alaska and northern Canada. Europ. J. Phycol. 54: 509–517.
  • Keeling, P. J. 2013. The number, speed, and impact of plastid endosymbioses in Eukaryotic evolution. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 64: 583–607.
  • Kim, J. I., Shin, H., Škaloud, P., Jung, J., Yoon, H. S., Archibald, J. M., and Shin, W. 2019. Comparative plastid genomics of Synurophyceae: inverted repeat dynamics and gene content variation. BMC Evol. Biol. 19: 20.
  • Kitada, S., Nakajima, K., Hamasaki, K., Shishidou, H., Waples, R. S., and Kishino, H. 2019. Rigorous monitoring of a large-scale marine stock enhancement program demonstrates the need for comprehensive management of fisheries and nursery habitat. Sci. Rep. 9: 5290.
  • Kloareg, B., and Quatrano, R. S. 1988. Structure of the cell walls of marine algae and ecophysiological functions of the matrix polysaccharides. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 26: 259–315.
  • Knoll, A. H. 2011. The multiple origins of complex multicellularity. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39: 217–239.
  • Kobayashi, H., Haino, Y., Iwasaki, T., Tezuka, A., Nagano, A. J., and Shimada, S. 2018. ddRAD-seq based phylogeographic study of Sargassum thunbergii (Phaeophyceae, Heterokonta) around Japanese coast. Mar. Environ. Res. 140: 104–113.
  • Kogame, K., Rindi, F., Peters, A. F., and Guiry, M. D. 2015. Genetic diversity and mitochondrial introgression in Scytosiphon lomentaria (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) in the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean. Phycologia 54: 367–374.
  • Kraan, S., and Guiry, M. D. 2000. Sexual hybridization experiments and phylogenetic relationships as inferred from Rubisco spacer sequences in the genus Alaria (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 36: 190–198.
  • Kraft, G. T., Saunders, G. W., Abbott, I. A., and Haroun, H. J. 2004. A uniquely calcified brown alga from Hawaii: Newhousia imbricata gen. et sp. nov. (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 40: 383–394.
  • Krause-Jensen, D., and Duarte, C. M. 2016. Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration. Nature Geosci. 9: 737–742.
  • Krause-Jensen, D., Lavery, P., Serrano, O., Marbà, N., Masque, P., and Duarte, C. M. 2018. Sequestration of macroalgal carbon: the elephant in the Blue Carbon room. Biol. Lett. 14: 20180236.
  • Krings, M., Klavins, S. D., Barthel, M., Lausberg, S., Serbet, R., Taylor, T. N., and Taylor, E. L. 2007. Perissothallus, a new genus for Late Pennsylvanian-Early Permian noncalcareous algae conventionally assigned to Schizopteris (alphleboid foliage). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 153: 477–488.
  • Krueger-Hadfield, S. A., Roze, D., Correa, J. A., Destombe, C., and Valero, M. 2015. O father where art thou? Paternity analyses in a natural population of the haploid-diploid seaweed Chondrus crispus. Heredity 114: 185–194.
  • Krumhansl, K. A., Okamoto, D. K., Rassweiler, A., Novak, M., Bolton, J. J., Cavanaugh, K. C., Connell, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Konar, B., Ling, S. D., Micheli, F., Norderhaug, K. M., Pérez-Matus, A., Sousa-Pinto, I., Reed, D. C., Salomon, A. K., Shears, N. T., Wernberg, T., Anderson, R. J., Barrett, N. S., Buschmann, A. H., Carr, M. H., Caselle, J. E., Derrien-Courtel, S., Edgar, G. J., Edwards, M., Estes, J. A., Goodwin, C., Kenner, M. C., Kushner, D. J., Moy, F. E., Nunn, J., Steneck, R. S., Vásquez, J., Watson, J., Witman, J. D., and Byrnes, J. E. K. 2016. Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 113: 13785–13790.
  • Krumhansl, K., and Scheibling, R. 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 467: 281–302.
  • Kucera, H., and Saunders, G. W. 2008. Assigning morphological variants of Fucus (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) in Canadian waters to recognized species using DNA barcoding. Botany 86: 1065–1079.
  • Küpper, F. C., Amsler, C. D., Morley, S., de Reviers, B., Reichardt, A., Peck, L. S., and Peters, A. F. 2019. Juvenile morphology of the large Antarctic canopy-forming brown alga Desmarestia menziesii. Polar Biol. 42: 2097–2103.
  • Küpper, F. C., Peters, A. F., Shewring, D. M., Sayer, M. D. J., Mystikou, A., Brown, H., Azzopardi, E., Dargent, O., Strittmatter, M., Brennan, D., Asensi, A. O., van West, P., and Wilce, R. T. 2016. Arctic marine phytobenthos of northern Baffin Island. J. Phycol. 52: 532–549.
  • Kylin, H. 1933. Über die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Phaeophyceen. Lunds Universitets Årsskrift N.F. Avd, 2, 29: 21–101.
  • La Barre, S., Potin, P., Leblanc, C., and Delage, L. 2010. The halogenated metabolism of brown algae (Phaeophyta), its biological importance and its environmental significance. Mar. Drugs 8: 988–1010.
  • Lane, C. E., Mayes, C., Druehl, L. D., and Saunders, G. W. 2006. A multi-gene molecular investigation of the kelp (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) supports substantial taxonomic re-organization. J. Phycol. 42: 493–512.
  • Laughinghouse, H. D., Müller, K. M., Adey, W. H., Lara, Y., Young, R., and Johnson, G. 2015. Evolution of the northern rockweed, Fucus distichus, in a regime of glacial cycling: implications for benthic algal phylogenetics. PLoS One 10: e0143795.
  • Lawver, L., Müller, R., Srivastava, S., and Roest, W. 1990. The opening of the Arctic Ocean. In Geological History of the Polar Oceans: Arctic vs. Antarctic; Bleil U., and Thiede J., Eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pp 29–62.
  • Le Cam, S., Daguin-Thiébaut, C., Bouchemousse, S., Engelen, A.H., Mieszkowska, N., and Viard, F. 2020. A genome-wide investigation of the worldwide invader Sargassum muticum shows high success albeit (almost) no genetic diversity . Evol. Appl. 13: 500–514.
  • Leblanc, C., Colin, C., Cosse, A., Delage, L., La Barre, S., Morin, P., Fiévet, B., Voiseux, C., Ambroise, Y., Verhaeghe, E., Amouroux, D., Donard, O., Tessier, E., and Potin, P. 2006. Iodine transfers in the coastal marine environment: the key role of brown algae and of their vanadium-dependent haloperoxidases. Biochimie 88: 1773–1785.
  • Lee, K. M., Boo, S. M., Kain, J. M., and Sherwood, A. R. 2013. Cryptic diversity and biogeography of the widespread brown alga Colpomenia sinuosa (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae). Bot. Mar. 56: 15–25.
  • Lee, K. Y., and Mooney, D. J. 2012. Alginate: properties and biomedical applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 37: 106–126.
  • Lee, R. K. S. 1973. General ecology of the Canadian Arctic benthic marine algae. Arctic 26: 32–43.
  • Levitan, D. R., Fukami, H., Jara, J., Kline, D., McGovern, T. M., McGhee, K. E., Swanson, C. A., and Knowlton, N. 2004. Mechanisms of reproductive isolation among sympatric broadcast-spawning corals of the Montastraea annularis species complex. Evolution 58: 308–323.
  • León-Alvarez, D., Reyes-Gómez, V. P., Wynne, M. J., Ponce-Márquez, M. E., and Quiróz-González. 2017. Morphological and molecular characterization of Hapalospongidion gelatinosum, Hapalospongidiaceae fam. nov. (Ralfsiales, Phaeophyceae) from Mexico. Bot. Mar. 60: 567–581.
  • Li, B., Lu, F., Wei, X., and Zhao, R. 2008. Fucoidan: structure and bioactivity. Molecules 13: 1671–1695.
  • Liggan, L. M., and Martone, P. T. 2018. Under pressure: biomechanical limitations of developing pneumatocysts in the bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 54: 608–615.
  • Lim, P. E., Sakaguchi, M., Hanyuda, T., Kogame, K., Phang, S. -M., and Kawai, H. 2007. Molecular phylogeny of crustose brown algae (Ralfsiales, Phaeophyceae) inferred from rbcL sequences resulting in proposal for Neoralfsiaceae fam. nov. Phycologia 46: 456–466.
  • Lipinska, A., Cormier, A., Luthringer, R., Peters, A. F., Corre, E., Gachon, C. M. M., Cock, J. M., and Coelho, S. M. 2015. Sexual dimorphism and the evolution of sex-biased gene expression in the brown alga Ectocarpus. Mol. Biol. Evol. 32: 1581–1597.
  • Lipinska, A. P., Serrano-Serrano, M. L., Cormier, A., Peters, A. F., Kogame, K., Cock, J. M., and Coelho, S. M. 2019. Rapid turnover of life-cycle-related genes in the brown algae. Genome Biol. 20: 35.
  • Lipinska, A., Toda, N., Heesch, S., Peters, A.F., Cock, J.M., and Coelho, S.M. 2017. Multiple gene movements into and out of haploid sex chromosomes. Genome Biol. 18: 104.
  • Liu, X., Bogaert, K., Engelen, A. H., Leliaert, F., Roleda, M. Y., and De Clerck, O. 2017. Seaweed reproductive biology: environmental and genetic controls. Bot. Mar. 60: 89–108.
  • López-Cristoffanini, C., Tellier, F., Otaíza, R., Correa, J. A., and Contreras-Porcia, L. 2013. Tolerance to air exposure: a feature driving the latitudinal distribution of two sibling kelp species. Bot. Mar. 56: 431–440.
  • Lotterhos, K. E., and Whitlock, M. C. 2015. The relative power of genome scans to detect local adaptation depends on sampling design and statistical method. Mol. Ecol. 24: 1031–1046.
  • Louime, C., Fortune, J., and Gervais, G. 2017. Sargassum invasion of coastal environments: a growing concern. Am. J. Environ. Sci. 13: 58–64.
  • Lourenço, C. R., Zardi, G. I., McQuaid, C. D., Serrao, E. Á., Pearson, G. A., Jacinto, R., and Nicastro, K. R. 2016. Upwelling areas as climate change refugia for the distribution and genetic diversity of a marine macroalga. J. Biogeogr. 43: 1595–1607.
  • Lund, S. 1951. Marine algae from Jörgen Brönlunds Fjord in eastern North Greenland. Meddr. Grønland. 128: 1–26.
  • Lüning, K., and Müller, D. G. 1978. Chemical interaction in sexual reproduction of several Laminariales (Phaeophyceae): release and attraction of spermatozoids. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 89: 333–341.
  • Lüning, K. 1990a. Temperate and Polar seaweed vegetation of the southern Hemisphere. In Seaweeds: Their Environment, Biogeography, and Ecophysiology; Yarish, C., and Kirkman, H., Eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
  • Lüning, K. 1990b. Introduction to vertical and geographical distribution. In Seaweeds: Their Environment, Biogeography, and Ecophysiology; Yarish, C., and Kirkman, H., Eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA.
  • Luthringer, R., Cormier, A., Ahmed, S., Peters, A.F., Cock, J.M., and Coelho, S.M. 2014. Sexual dimorphism in the brown algae. Pers. Phycol. 1: 11–25.
  • Luthringer, R., Lipinska, A. P., Roze, D., Cormier, A., Macaisne, N., Peters, A. F., Cock, J. M., and Coelho, S. M. 2015. The pseudoautosomal regions of the U/V sex chromosomes of the brown alga Ectocarpus exhibit unusual features. Mol. Biol. Evol. 32: 2973–2985.
  • Mable, B. K., and Otto, S. P. 1998. The evolution of life cycles with haploid and diploid phases. Bioessays 20: 453–462.
  • Mac Monagail, M., Cornish, L., Morrison, L., Araújo, R., and Critchley, A. T. 2017. Sustainable harvesting of wild seaweed resources. Eur. J. Phycol. 52: 371–390.
  • Macaisne, N., Liu, F., Scornet, D., Peters, A. F., Lipinska, A., Perrineau, M.-M., Henry, A., Strittmatter, M., Coelho, S. M., and Cock, J. M. 2017. The Ectocarpus IMMEDIATE UPRIGHT gene encodes a member of a novel family of cysteine-rich proteins with an unusual distribution across the eukaryotes. Development 144: 409–418.
  • Macaya, E. C., and Zuccarello, G. C. 2010. Genetic structure of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera along the southeastern Pacific. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 420: 103–112.
  • Maier, I. 1995. Brown algal pheromones. Vol. 11. In Progress in Phycological Research; Round, F. E. and Chapman, D. J., Eds. Biopress, Bristol, UK, pp 51–102.
  • Manel, S., Perrier, C., Pratlong, M., Abi-Rached, L., Paganini, J., Pontarotti, P., and Aurelle, D. 2016. Genomic resources and their influence on the detection of the signal of positive selection in genome scans. Mol. Ecol. 25: 170–184.
  • Mann, K. H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth: The role of large marine algae in coastal productivity is far more important than has been suspected. Science 182: 975–981.
  • Manna, F., Gallet, R., Martin, G., and Lenormand, T. 2012. The high-throughput yeast deletion fitness data and the theories of dominance. J. Evol. Biol. 25: 892–903.
  • Manton, I. 1959. Observations on the internal structure of the spermatozoid of Dictyota. J. Exp. Bot. 10: 448–461.
  • Marincovich, J. L., Brouwers, E. M., Hopkins, D. M., and McKenna, M. C. 1990. Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleogeographic and paleoclimatic history of the Arctic Ocean Basin, based on shallow-water marine faunas and terrestrial vertebrates. In The Arctic Ocean Region; Grantz, A., Johnson, L., and Sweeney, J., Eds. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, USA, pp 403–426.
  • Markel, R. W., Lotterhos, K. E., and Robinson, C. L. K. 2017. Temporal variability in the environmental and geographic predictors of spatial-recruitment in nearshore rockfishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 574: 97–111.
  • Martin, P., and Zuccarello, G. C. 2012. Molecular phylogeny and timing of radiation in Lessonia (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales). Phycol. Res. 60: 276–287.
  • Martínez, B., Radford, B., Thomsen, M. S., Connell, S. D., Carreño, F., Bradshaw, C. J. A., Fordham, D. A., Russell, B. D., Gurgel, C. F. D., and Wernberg, T. 2018. Distribution models predict large contractions of habitat forming seaweeds in response to ocean warming. Divers. Distrib. 24: 1350–1366.
  • Martins, M. J. F., Mota, C. F., and Pearson, G. A. 2013. Sex-biased gene expression in the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus. BMC Genomics 14: 294.
  • Martins, N., Pearson, G. A., Gouveia, L., Tavares, A. I., Serrão, E. Á., and Bartsch, I. 2019. Hybrid vigour for thermal tolerance in hybrids between the allopatric kelps Laminaria digitata and L. pallida (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) with contrasting thermal affinities. Eur. J. Phycol. 54: 548–561.
  • Mautner, H.G. 1954. The chemistry of brown algae. Econ. Bot. 8: 174–192.
  • McCauley, L. A. R., and Wehr, J. D. 2007. Taxonomic reappraisal of the freshwater brown algae Bodanella, Ectocarpus, Heribaudiella, and Pleurocladia (Phaeophyceae) on the basis of rbcL sequences and morphological characters. Phycologia 46: 429–439.
  • McCulloch, R. D., Bentley, M. J., Purves, R. S., Hulton, N. R. J., Sugden, D. E., and Clapperton, C. M. 2000. Climatic inferences from glacial and palaeoecological evidence at the last glacial termination, southern South America. J. Quaternary Sci. 15: 409–417.
  • McHugh, D. J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
  • Mendez-Tejeda, R., and Rosado Jiménez, G. A. 2019. Influence of climatic factors on Sargassum arrivals to the coasts of the Dominican Republic. J. Oceanogr. Mar. Sci. 10: 22–32.
  • Meslet-Cladière, L., Delage, L., Leroux, C. J.-J., Goulitquer, S., Leblanc, C., Creis, E., Gall, E. A., Stiger-Pouvreau, V., Czjzek, M., and Potin, P. 2013. Structure/function analysis of a type III polyketide synthase in the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus reveals a biochemical pathway in phlorotannin monomer biosynthesis. Plant Cell 25: 3089–3103.
  • Milledge, J. J., Nielsen, B. V., and Bailey, D. 2016. High-value products from macroalgae: the potential uses of the invasive brown seaweed, Sargassum muticum. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 15: 67–88.
  • Miller, G.H., Brigham-Grette, J., Alley, R.B., Anderson, L., Bauch, H.A., Douglas, M.S.V., Edwards, M.E., Elias, S.A., Finney, B.P., Fitzpatrick, J.J., Funder, S.V., Herbert, T.D., Hinzman, L.D., Kaufman, D.S., MacDonald, G.M., Polyak, L., Robock, A., Serreze, M.C., Smol, J.P., Spielhagen, R., White, J.W.C., Wolfe, A.P., and Wolff, E.W. 2010. Temperature and precipitation history of the Arctic. Quat. Sci. Rev. 29: 1679–1715.
  • Miller, K. A., Olsen, J. L., and Stam, W. T. 2000. Genetic divergence correlates with morphological and ecological subdivision in the deep‐water elk kelp, Pelagophycus porra (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 36: 862–870.
  • Mineur, F., Arenas, F., Assis, J., Davies, A. J., Engelen, A. H., Fernandes, F., Malta, E-j., Thibaut, T., Van Nguyen, T., Vaz-Pinto, F., Vranken, S., Serrão, E. A., and De Clerck, O. 2015. European seaweeds under pressure: consequences for communities and ecosystem functioning. J. Sea Res. 98: 91–108.
  • Miyata, M., Okazaki, M., and Furuya, K. 1977. Site and nature of calcium carbonate deposits in a calcareous brown alga Padina japonica (studies on the calcium carbonate deposition of algae). Bull. Jpn. Soc. Phycol. 25: 1–6.
  • Moalic, Y., Arnaud-Haond, S., Perrin, C., Pearson, G. A., and Serrao, E. Á. 2011. Travelling in time with networks: revealing present day hybridization versus ancestral polymorphism between two species of brown algae, Fucus vesiculosus and F. spiralis. BMC Evol. Biol. 11: 33.
  • Moe, R. L., and Henry, E. C. 1982. Reproduction and early development of Ascoseira mirabilis Skottsberg (Phaeophyta), with notes on Ascoseirales Petrov. Phycologia 21: 55–66.
  • Montecinos, A. E., Couceiro, L., Peters, A. F., Desrut, A., Valero, M., and Guillemin, M. L. 2017. Species delimitation and phylogeographic analyses in the Ectocarpus subgroup siliculosi (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 53: 17–31.
  • Montecinos, A. E., Guillemin, M., Couceiro, L., Peters, A. F., Stoeckel, S., and Valero, M. 2017. Hybridization between two cryptic filamentous brown seaweeds along the shore: analysing pre- and postzygotic barriers in populations of individuals with varying ploidy levels. Mol. Ecol. 26: 3497–3512.
  • Monteiro, C. A., Paulino, C., Jacinto, R., Serrão, E. Á., and Pearson, G. A. 2016. Temporal windows of reproductive opportunity reinforce species barriers in a marine broadcast spawning assemblage. Sci. Rep. 6: 29198.
  • Monteiro, C. A., Serrão, E. Á., and Pearson, G. A. 2012. Prezygotic barriers to hybridization in marine broadcast spawners: reproductive timing and mating system variation. PLoS One 7: e35978.
  • Monteiro, C., Heinrich, S., Bartsch, I., Valentin, K.U., Corre, E., Collén, J., Harms, L., Glöckner, G., and Bischof, K. 2019. Temperature dependent sex-biased gene expression in the gametophytes of the kelp Saccharina latissima. BioRxiv. 750455.
  • Morya, V. K., Kim, J., and Kim, E.-K. 2012. Algal fucoidan: structural and size-dependent bioactivities and their perspectives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 93: 71–82.
  • Mota, C. F., Engelen, A. H., Serrão, E. Á., Coelho, M. A. G., Marbà, N., Krause-Jensen, D., and Pearson, G. A. 2018. Differentiation in fitness-related traits in response to elevated temperatures between leading and trailing edge populations of marine macrophytes. PLoS One 13: e0203666.
  • Müller, D. G. 1964. Life-cycle of Ectocarpus siliculosus from Naples, Italy. Nature 203: 1402–1402.
  • Müller, D. G., and Gassmann, G. 1980. Sexual hormone specificity in Ectocarpus and Laminaria (Phaeophyceae). Naturwissenschaften 67: 462–463.
  • Müller, D. G., Gassmann, G., Boland, W., Marner, F., and Jaenicke, L. 1981. Dictyota dichotoma (Phaeophyceae): identification of the sperm attractant. Science 212: 1040–1041.
  • Müller, D. G., Gassmann, G., and Lüning, K. 1979. Isolation of a spermatozoid-releasing and -attracting substance from female gametophytes of Laminaria digitata. Nature 279: 430–431.
  • Müller, D. G., and Jaenicke, L. 1973. Fucoserraten, the female sex attractant of Fucus serratus L. (Phaeophyta). FEBS Lett. 30: 137–139.
  • Müller, D. G., Jaenicke, L., Donike, M., and Akintobi, T. 1971. Sex attractant in a brown alga: chemical structure. Science 171: 815–817.
  • Müller, D. G., Murúa, P., and Westermeier, R. 2019. Reproductive strategies of Lessonia berteroana (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) gametophytes from Chile: apogamy, parthenogenesis and cross-fertility with L. spicata. J. Appl. Phycol. 31: 1475–1481.
  • Mystikou, A., Peters, A. F., Asensi, A. O., Fletcher, K. I., Brickle, P., van West, P., Convey, P., and Küpper, F. C. 2014. Seaweed biodiversity in the south-western Antarctic Peninsula: surveying macroalgal community composition in the Adelaide Island/Marguerite Bay region over a 35-year time span. Polar Biol. 37: 1607–1619.
  • Nasmyth, K., and Shore, D. 1987. Transcriptional regulation in the yeast life cycle. Science 237: 1162–1170.
  • Navarro, A., and Barton, N. H. 2002. The effects of multilocus balancing selection on neutral variability. Genetics 161: 849–863.
  • Neiva, J., Assis, J., Coelho, N. C., Fernandes, F., Pearson, G. A., and Serrão, E. A. 2015. Genes left behind: climate change threatens cryptic genetic diversity in the canopy-forming seaweed Bifurcaria bifurcata. PLoS One 10: e0131530.
  • Neiva, J., Assis, J., Fernandes, F., Pearson, G. A., and Serrão, E. Á. 2014. Species distribution models and mitochondrial DNA phylogeography suggest an extensive biogeographical shift in the high-intertidal seaweed Pelvetia canaliculata. J. Biogeogr. 41: 1137–1148.
  • Neiva, J., Hansen, G. I., Pearson, G. A., Vliet, M. S. V. D., Maggs, C. A., and Serrão, E. Á. 2012. Fucus cottonii (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) is not a single genetic entity but a convergent salt-marsh morphotype with multiple independent origins. Eur. J. Phycol. 47: 461–468.
  • Neiva, J., Paulino, C., Nielsen, M. M., Krause-Jensen, D., Saunders, G. W., Assis, J., Bárbara, I., Tamigneaux, É., Gouveia, L., Aires, T., Marbà, N., Bruhn, A., Pearson, G. A., and Serrão, E. A. 2018. Glacial vicariance drives phylogeographic diversification in the amphi-boreal kelp Saccharina latissima. Sci. Rep. 8: 1112.
  • Neiva, J., Pearson, G. A., Valero, M., and Serrão, E. Á. 2010. Surfing the wave on a borrowed board: range expansion and spread of introgressed organellar genomes in the seaweed Fucus ceranoides L. Mol. Ecol. 19: 4812–4822.
  • Neiva, J., Pearson, G. A., Valero, M., and Serrão, E. Á. 2012. Drifting fronds and drifting alleles: Range dynamics, local dispersal and habitat isolation shape the population structure of the estuarine seaweed Fucus ceranoides. J. Biogeogr. 39: 1167–1178.
  • Neiva, J., Serrão, E. A., Anderson, L., Raimondi, P. T., Martins, N., Gouveia, L., Paulino, C., Coelho, N. C., Miller, K. A., Reed, D. C., Ladah, L. B., and Pearson, G. A. 2017. Cryptic diversity, geographical endemism and allopolyploidy in NE Pacific seaweeds. BMC Evol. Biol. 17: 30.
  • Neiva, J., Serrão, E. Á., Assis, J., Pearson, G. A., Coyer, J. A., Olsen, J. L., Hoarau, G., and Valero, M. 2016. Climate oscillations, range shifts and phylogeographic patterns of North Atlantic Fucaceae. In Seaweed Phylogeography: adaptation and Evolution of Seaweeds under Environmental Change; Hu, Z.-M., and Fraser, C. I., Eds. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp 279–308.
  • Nicastro, K. R., Zardi, G., Teixeira, S., Neiva, J., Serrão, E. Á., and Pearson, G. A. 2013. Shift happens: trailing edge contraction associated with recent warming trends threatens a distinct genetic lineage in the marine macroalga Fucus vesiculosus. BMC Biol. 11: 6.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T., Arai, S., Uchimura, M., Abbott, I.A., and Kawai, H. 2008. New records of Padina species from the western coast of the Pacific Ocean. Phycol. Res 56: 288–300.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T., Arai, S., Uchimura, M., Prathep, A., Draisma, S. G. A., Soe, H., and Kawai, H. 2010. Four new species of Padina (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) from the western Pacific, Ocean, and reinstatement of Padina japonica. Phycologia 49: 136–153.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T., Arai, S., Uchimura, M., Prathep, A., Draisma, S. G. A., Phang, S. M., Abbott, I. A., Millar, A. J. K., and Kawai, H. 2011. A taxonomic study of the genus Padina (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) including the description of four new species from Japan, Hawaii, and the Andaman Sea. J. Phycol. 47: 1193–1209.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T.., Draisma, S.G.A., Furnari, G., Meinesz, A., and Kawai, H. 2011. Padina ditristromatica sp. nov. and Padina pavonicoides sp. nov. (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae), two new species from the Mediterranean Sea based on morphological and molecular markers. Europ. J. Phycol. 46: 327–341.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T., Draisma, S. G. A., Prud'homme van Reine, W. F., Lim, P. E., Phang, S. M., and Kawai, H. 2012. Two new species of Padina (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae), P. indiana and P. calcarea, from tropical Indo-Pacific regions based on morphological and molecular evidence. Phycologia 51: 576–585.
  • Ni-Ni-Win, H. T., Kato, A., and Kawai, H. 2018. Two new species of Padina (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) from southern Japan, P. ogasawaraensis sp. nov. and P. reniformis sp. nov., based on morphology and molecular markers. Phycologia 57: 20–31.
  • Nishitsuji, K., Arimoto, A., Higa, Y., Mekaru, M., Kawamitsu, M., Satoh, N., and Shoguchi, E. 2019. Draft genome of the brown alga, Nemacystus decipiens, Onna-1 strain: Fusion of genes involved in the sulfated fucan biosynthesis pathway. Sci. Rep. 9: 4607.
  • Nishitsuji, K., Arimoto, A., Iwai, K., Sudo, Y., Hisata, K., Fujie, M., Arakaki, N., Kushiro, T., Konishi, T., Shinzato, C., Satoh, N., and Shoguchi, E. 2016. A draft genome of the brown alga, Cladosiphon okamuranus, S-strain: a platform for future studies of “mozuku” biology. DNA Res. 23: 561–570.
  • Oppliger, L. V., Correa, J. A., Engelen, A. H., Tellier, F., Vieira, V., Faugeron, S., Valero, M., Gomez, G., and Destombe, C. 2012. Temperature effects on gametophyte life-history traits and geographic distribution of two cryptic kelp species. PLoS One 7: e39289.
  • Oppliger, L. V., Correa, J. A., Faugeron, S., Beltrán, J., Tellier, F., Valero, M., and Destombe, C. 2011. Sex ratio variation in the Lessonia nigrescens complex (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae): effect of latitude, temperature, and marginality. J. Phycol. 47: 5–12.
  • Oppliger, L. V., von Dassow, P., Bouchemousse, S., Robuchon, M., Valero, M., Correa, J. A., Mauger, S., and Destombe, C. 2014. Alteration of sexual reproduction and genetic diversity in the kelp species Laminaria digitata at the southern limit of its range. PLoS One 9: e102518.
  • Otto, S. P., and Marks, J. C. 1996. Mating systems and the evolutionary transition between haploidy and diploidy. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 57: 197–218.
  • Otto, S. P., Pannell, J. R., Peichel, C. L., Ashman, T.-L., Charlesworth, D., Chippindale, A. K., Delph, L. F., Guerrero, R. F., Scarpino, S. V., and McAllister, B. F. 2011. About PAR: the distinct evolutionary dynamics of the pseudoautosomal region. Trends Genet. 27: 358–367.
  • Øverland, M., Mydland, L. V., and Skrede, A. 2019. Marine macroalgae as sources of protein and bioactive compounds in feed for monogastric animals. J. Sci. Food Agric. 99: 13–24.
  • Pacheco-Ruíz, I., Cabello-Pasini, A., Zertuche-Gonzalez, J. A., Murray, S., Espinoza-Avalos, J., and Dreyfus-Leon, M. J. 2011. Carpospore and tetraspore release and survival in Chondracanthus squarrulosus (Rhodophyta: Gigartinaceae) from the Gulf of California. Bot. Mar. 54: 127–134.
  • Parker, B. C., and Dawson, E. Y. 1965. Non-calcareous marine algae from California Miocene deposits. Nova Hedwigia 10: 273–295.
  • Parsch, J., and Ellegren, H. 2013. The evolutionary causes and consequences of sex-biased gene expression. Nat. Rev. Genet. 14: 83–87.
  • Pearson, G. A., Kautsky, L., and Serrão, E. Á. 2000. Recent evolution in Baltic Fucus vesiculosus: reduced tolerance to emersion stresses compared to intertidal (North Sea) populations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 202: 67–79.
  • Pearson, G. A., and Serrão, E. Á. 2006. Revisiting synchronous gamete release by fucoid algae in the intertidal zone: fertilization success and beyond? Integr. Comp. Biol. 46: 587–597.
  • Peate, D. W. 1997. The Paraná-Etendeka province. In Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism. Geophysical Monographic Series, vol. 1; Mahoney, J. J., and Coffin, M. F., Eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, pp 217–245.
  • Peck, J. R., Yearsley, J. M., and Waxman, D. 1998. Explaining the geographic distributions of sexual and asexual populations. Nature 391: 889–892.
  • Pelletreau, K. N., and Muller-Parker, G. 2002. Sulfuric acid in the phaeophyte alga Desmarestia munda deters feeding by the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Mar. Biol. 141: 1–9.
  • Pereira, T. R., Engelen, A. H., Pearson, G. A., Serrão, E. Á., Destombe, C., and Valero, M. 2011. Temperature effects on the microscopic haploid stage development of Laminaria ochroleuca and Sacchoriza polyschides, kelps with contrasting life histories. Cah. Biol. Mar. 52: 395–403.
  • Pereira, T. R., Engelen, A. H., Pearson, G. A., Valero, M., and Serrão, E. Á. 2017. Population dynamics of temperate kelp forests near their low-latitude limit. Aquat. Bot. 139: 8–18.
  • Pereira, T.R., Engelen, A.H., Pearson, G.A., Valero, M., and Serrão, E. 2015. Response of kelps from different latitudes to consecutive heat shock. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 463: 57–62.
  • Pereira, V., Marques, A., Gaivão, I., Rego, A., Abreu, H., Pereira, R., Santos, M. A., Guilherme, S., and Pacheco, M. 2019. Marine macroalgae as a dietary source of genoprotection in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) against endogenous and exogenous challenges. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 219: 12–24.
  • Perrin, C., Daguin, C.V., De Vliet, M., Enge, l C. R., Pearson, G. A., and Serrão, E. Á. 2007. Implications of mating system for genetic diversity of sister algal species: Fucus spiralis and Fucus vesiculosus (Heterokontophyta, Phaeophyceae). Eur. J. Phycol. 42: 219–230.
  • Perrin, N. 2012. What uses are mating types? The “developmental switch” model. Evolution 66: 947–956.
  • Perrot, V., Richerd, S., and Valero, M. 1991. Transition from haploidy to diploidy. Nature 351: 315–317.
  • Peters, A. F., and Ramírez, M. E. 2001. Molecular phylogeny of small brown algae, with special reference to the systematic position of Caepidium antarcticum (Adenocystaceae, Ectocarpales). Cryptogam. Algol. 22: 187–200.
  • Peters, A. F., Scornet, D., Ratin, M., Charrier, B., Monnier, A., Merrien, Y., Corre, E., Coelho, S. M., and Cock, J. M. 2008. Life-cycle-generation-specific developmental processes are modified in the immediate upright mutant of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus. Development 135: 1503–1512.
  • Peters, A. F., Oppen, M. J. H., Wiencke, C., Stam, W. T., and Olsen, J. L. 1997. Phylogeny and historical ecology of the Desmarestiaceae (Phaeophyceae) support a southern hemisphere origin. J. Phycol. 33: 294–309.
  • Pfister, C. A., Altabet, M. A., and Weigel, B. L. 2019. Kelp beds and their local effects on seawater chemistry, productivity, and microbial communities. Ecology 100: e02798.
  • Phillips, J. A. 1997. Genus and species concepts in Zonaria and Homoeostrichus (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae), including the description of Exallosorus gen. nov. Eur. J. Phycol. 32: 303–311.
  • Phillips, J. A. 2001. Marine macroalgal biodiversity hotspots: why is there high species richness and endemism in southern Australian marine benthic flora? Biodivers. Conserv. 10: 1555–1577.
  • Phillips, J. A., and Clayton, M. N. 1991. Biflagellate spermatozoids in the Dictyotales: the structure of gametes and gametangia in Zonaria angustata (Dictyotales, Phaeophyta). Phycologia 30: 205–214.
  • Phillips, J. A., and Clayton, M. N. 1993. Comparative flagellar morphology of spermatozoids of the Dictyotales (Phaeophyceae). Eur. J. Phycol. 28: 123–127.
  • Phillips, N., Burrowes, R., Rousseau, F., de Reviers, B., and Saunders, G. W. 2008. Resolving evolutionary relationships among the brown algae using chloroplast and nuclear genes. J. Phycol. 44: 394–405.
  • Phillips, N., Kapraun, D. F., Gómez Garreta, A., Ribera Siguan, M. A., Rull, J. L., Salvador Soler, N., Lewis, R., and Kawai, H. 2011. Estimates of nuclear DNA content in 98 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta). AoB Plants 2011: plr001.
  • Potrzebowski, L., Vinckenbosch, N., Marques, A. C., Chalmel, F., Jégou, B., and Kaessmann, H. 2008. Chromosomal gene movements reflect the recent origin and biology of therian sex chromosomes. PLoS Biol. 6: e80.
  • Prud’homme van Reine, W. F. 1982. A Taxonomic Revision of the European Sphacelariaceae (Sphacelarial.es, Phaeophyceae). Brill/Leiden University Press, Leiden, Netherlands.
  • Prud’homme van Reine, W. F. 1993. Sphacelariales (Phaeophyceae) of the world, a new synthesis. Kor. J. Phycol. 8: 145–160.
  • Pyenson, N. D., and Vermeij, G. J. 2016. The rise of ocean giants: maximum body size in Cenozoic marine mammals as an indicator for productivity in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Biol. Lett. 12: 20160186.
  • Quiring, R., Walldorf, U., Kloter, U., and Gehring, W. J. 1994. Homology of the eyeless Gene of Drosophila to the Small eye Gene in Mice and Aniridia in humans. Science 265: 785–789.
  • Racault, M.-F L. P., Fletcher, R. L., de Reviers, B., Cho, G. Y., Boo, S. M., Parente, M. I., and Rousseau, F. 2009. Molecular phylogeny of the brown algal genus Petrospongium Nägeli ex Kütz. (Phaeophyceae) with evidence for Petrospongiaceae fam. Nov. Cryptogam. Algolog. 30: 111–123.
  • Rajanikanth, A. 1989. A fossil marine brown alga from the Gangapur Formation, Pranhita-Godavari Graben. Curr. Sci. 58: 78–80.
  • Ravinet, M., Faria, R., Butlin, R. K., Galindo, J., Bierne, N., Rafajlović, M., Noor, M. A. F., Mehlig, B., and Westram, A. M. 2017. Interpreting the genomic landscape of speciation: a road map for finding barriers to gene flow. J. Evol. Biol. 30: 1450–1477.
  • Reed, D. C., Schroeter, S. C., and Raimondi, P. T. 2004. Spore supply and habitat availability as sources of recruitment limitation in the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 40: 275–284.
  • Rescan, M., Lenormand, T., and Roze, D. 2016. Interactions between genetic and ecological effects on the evolution of life cycles. Am. Nat. 187: 19–34.
  • Roberson, L. M., and Coyer, J. A. 2004. Variation in blade morphology of the kelp Eisenia arborea: incipient speciation due to local water motion? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 282: 115–128.
  • Robuchon, M., Couceiro, L., Peters, A. F., Destombe, C., and Valero, M. 2014. Examining the bank of microscopic stages in kelps using culturing and barcoding. Eur. J. Phycol. 49: 128–133.
  • Rothman, M. D., Mattio, L., Anderson, R. J., and Bolton, J. J. 2017. A phylogeographic investigation of the kelp genus Laminaria (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae), with emphasis on the south Atlantic Ocean. J. Phycol. 53: 778–789.
  • Rousseau, F., de Reviers, B., Leclerc, M.-C., Asensi, A., and Delépine, R. 2000. Adenocystaceae fam. nov. (Phaeophyceae) based on morphological and molecular evidence. Europ. J. Phycol. 35: 35–43.
  • Saada, G., Nicastro, K. R., Jacinto, R., McQuaid, C. D., Serrão, E. Á., Pearson, G.A., and Zardi, G. I. 2016. Taking the heat: distinct vulnerability to thermal stress of central and threatened peripheral lineages of a marine macroalga. Diversity Distrib. 22: 1060–1068.
  • Santelices, B., and Meneses, I. 2000. A reassessment of the phytogeographic characterization of temperate Pacific South America. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 73: 605–614.
  • Saunders, G. W., and McDevit, D. C. 2013. DNA barcoding unmasks overlooked diversity improving knowledge on the composition and origins of the Churchill algal flora. BMC Ecol. 13: 9.
  • Saunders, G. W., and McDevit, D. C. 2014. A DNA barcode survey of Haida Gwaii kelp (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) reveals novel ecological and distributional observations and Saccharina druehlii sp. nov. Botany 92: 821–826.
  • Schiel, D. R., and Foster, M. S. 2006. The population biology of large brown seaweeds: ecological consequences of multiphase life histories in dynamic coastal environments. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 37: 343–372.
  • Schmidt, O. C. 1937. Choristocarpaceen und Discosporangiaceen. Hedwigia 77: 1–4.
  • Schmitz, K., and Srivastava, L. M. 1976. The fine structure of sieve elements of Nereocystis Lütkeana. Am. J. Bot. 63: 679–693.
  • Scott, M. F., and Rescan, M. 2017. Evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles when haploid and diploid fitnesses are not equal. Evolution 71: 215–226.
  • Serrão, E. Á., Alice, L. A., and Brawley, S. H. 1999. Evolution of the Fucaceae (Phaeophyceae) inferred from nrDNA-ITS. J. Phycol. 35: 382–394.
  • Serrão, E. Á., Kautsky, L., and Brawley, S. H. 1996. Distributional success of the marine seaweed Fucus vesiculosus L. in the brackish Baltic Sea correlates with osmotic capabilities of Baltic gametes. Oecologia 107: 1–12.
  • Shan, T., Yuan, J., Su, L., Li, J., Leng, X., Zhang, Y., Gao, H., and Pang, S. 2020. First genome of the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida: chromosome-level assembly using PacBio and Hi-C technologies. Front. Genet. 11: 140–146.
  • Sheath, R. G., and Wehr, J. D. 2015. Introduction to the freshwater algae. In Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification; Wehr, J., Sheath, R., and Kociolek, J. P., Eds. Elsevier, Massachusetts, USA, pp 1–11.
  • Silberfeld, T., Bittner, L., Fernández-García, C., Cruaud, C., Rousseau, F., Reviers, B., Leliaert, F., Payri, C. E., and De Clerck, O. 2013. Species diversity, phylogeny and large scale biogeographic patterns of the genus Padina (Phaeophyceae, Dictyotales). J. Phycol. 49: 130–142.
  • Silberfeld, T., Leigh, J., Verbruggen, H., Cruaud, C., de Reviers, B., and Rousseau, F. 2010. A multi-locus time-calibrated phylogeny of the brown algae (Heterokonta, Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae): investigating the evolutionary nature of the “brown algal crown radiation. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 56: 659–674.
  • Silberfeld, T., Rousseau, F., and de Reviers, B. 2014. An updated classification of brown algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae). Cryptogamie Algol. 35: 117–156.
  • Skaugrud, Ø., Hagen, A., Borgersen, B., and Dornish, M. 1999. Biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of alginate and chitosan. Biotechnol. Genet. Eng. Rev. 16: 23–40.
  • Smale, D. A., Burrows, M. T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N., and Hawkins, S. J. 2013. Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a Northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecol. Evol. 3: 4016–4038.
  • Smale, D. A., Wernberg, T., Oliver, E. C. J., Thomsen, M., Harvey, B. P., Straub, S. C., Burrows, M. T., Alexander, L. V., Benthuysen, J. A., Donat, M. G., Feng, M., Hobday, A. J., Holbrook, N. J., Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S. E., Scannell, H. A., Sen Gupta, A., Payne, B. L., and Moore, P. J. 2019. Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. Nat. Clim. Change 9: 306–312.
  • Smith, S. D. 2002. Kelp rafts in the Southern Ocean. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 11: 67–69.
  • Sousa, F., Neiva, J., Martins, N., Jacinto, R., Anderson, L., Raimondi, P. T., Serrão, E. A., and Pearson, G. A. 2019. Increased evolutionary rates and conserved transcriptional response following allopolyploidization in brown algae. Evolution 73: 59–72.
  • South, G. R. 1975. Contributions to the flora of marine algae of eastern Canada III. Order Tilopteridales. Le Natural. Canad. 102: 693–702.
  • Spalding, M. D., Fox, H. E., Allen, G. R., Davidson, N., Ferdaña, Z. A., Finlayson, M., Halpern, B. S., Jorge, M. A., Lombana, A., Lourie, S. A., Martin, K. D., McManus, E., Molnar, J., Recchia, C. A., and Robertson, J. 2007. Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. BioScience 57: 573–583.
  • Starko, S., Boo, G. H., Martone, P. T., and Lindstrom, S. C. 2018. A molecular investigation of Saccharina sessilis from the Aleutian Islands reveals a species complex, necessitating the new combination Saccharina subsessilis. Algae 33: 157–166.
  • Starko, S., Demes, K., Neufeld, C. J., and Martone, P. T. 2020. Convergent evolution of niche structure in Northeast Pacific kelp forests. Funct. Ecol.
  • Starko, S., and Martone, P. T. 2016a. An empirical test of 'universal' biomass scaling relationships in kelps: evidence of convergence with seed plants. New Phytol. 212: 719–729.
  • Starko, S., and Martone, P. T. 2016b. Evidence of an evolutionary-developmental trade-off between drag avoidance and tolerance strategies in wave-swept intertidal kelps (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). ). J. Phycol. 52: 54–63.
  • Starko, S., Soto Gomez, M., Darby, H., Demes, K. W., Kawai, H., Yotsukura, N., Lindstrom, S. C., Keeling, P. J., Graham, S. W., and Martone, P. T. 2019. A comprehensive kelp phylogeny sheds light on the evolution of an ecosystem. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 136: 138–150.
  • Steen, F., Verlaque, M., Dhondt, S., Vieira, C., and De Clerck, O. 2019. Population structure and geographically structured reproductive strategies of the haplodiplontic seaweed Dictyota dichotoma. BioRxiv. 595587.
  • Steen, F., Vieira, C., D’hondt, S., Tyberghein, L., Fernandez-García, C., Wysor, B., Tronholm, A., Mattio, L., Payri, C., Leliaert, F., Verbruggen, H., and Clerck, O. D. Under revision. Global diversification and biogeography of a group of brown seaweeds driven by different evolutionary processes across clades.
  • Steen, F., Vieira, C., Leliaert, F., Payri, E. C., and De Clerck, O. 2015. Biogeographic affinities of Dictyotales from Madagascar: a phylogenetic approach. Cryptogamie Algol. 36: 129–141.
  • Steinberg, P. D., Estes, J. A., and Winter, F. C. 1995. Evolutionary consequences of food chain length in kelp forest communities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 92: 8145–8148.
  • Steneck, R. S., Graham, M. H., Bourque, B. J., Corbett, D., Erlandson, J. M., Estes, J. A., and Tegner, M. J. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Envir. Conserv. 29: 436–459.
  • Stephens, T., and Hepburn, C. 2014. Mass-transfer gradients across kelp beds influence Macrocystis pyrifera growth over small spatial scales. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 515: 97–109.
  • Sun, Z., Hanyuda, T., Lim, P.-E., Tanaka, J., Gurgel, C. F. D., and Kawai, H. 2012. Taxonomic revision of the genus Lobophora (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) based on morphological evidence and analyses rbcL and cox3 gene sequences. Phycologia 51: 500–512.
  • Tan, I. H., and Druehl, L. D. 1993. Phylogeny of the Northeast Pacific brown algal (Phaeophycean) orders as inferred from 18S rDNA gene sequences. In 14th International Seaweed Symposium; Chapman, A. R. O., Brown, M. T., and Lahaye, M., Eds. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp 699–704.
  • Tan, I. H., and Druehl, L. D. 1994. A molecular analysis of Analipus and Ralfsia (Phaeophyceae) suggests the order Ectocarpales is polyphyletic. J. Phycol. 30: 721–729.
  • Tanaka, A., Nagasato, C., Uwai, S., Motomura, T., and Kawai, H. 2007. Re-examination of ultrastructures of the stellate chloroplast organization in brown algae: Structure and development of pyrenoids. Phyco. Res. 55: 203–213.
  • Tatarenkov, A., Bergström, L., Jönsson, R. B., Serrão, E. Á., Kautsky, L., and Johannesson, K. 2005. Intriguing asexual life in marginal populations of the brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus. Mol. Ecol. 14: 647–651.
  • Tatarenkov, A., Jönsson, R. B., Kautsky, L., and Johannesson, K. 2007. Genetic structure in populations of Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae) over spatial scales from 10 m to 800 km. J. Phycol. 43: 675–685.
  • Teagle, H., Hawkins, S. J., Moore, P. J., and Smale, D. A. 2017. The role of kelp species as biogenic habitat formers in coastal marine ecosystems. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 492: 81–98.
  • Tellier, F., Faugeron, S., and Valero, M. 2011. Possible role of a mitochondrial genome rearrangement in maintaining the spatial segregation of two cryptic species of the Lessonia nigrescens species complex. Cah. Biol. Mar. 52: 371–383.
  • Tellier, F., Meynard, A., Correa, J., Faugeron, S., and Valero, M. 2009. Phylogeographic analyses of the 30 degrees S south-east Pacific biogeographic transition zone establish the occurrence of a sharp genetic discontinuity in the kelp Lessonia nigrescens: vicariance or parapatry? Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 53: 679–693.
  • Tellier, F., Tapia, J., Faugeron, S., Destombe, C., and Valero, M. 2011. The Lessonia nigrescens species complex (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) shows strict parapatry and complete reproductive isolation in a secondary contact zone. J. Phycol. 47: 894–903.
  • Thakur, R., Shiratori, T., and Ishida, K. 2019. Taxon-rich multigene phylogenetic analyses resolve the phylogenetic relationship among deep-branching Stramenopiles. Protist 170: 125682.
  • Thornber, C. S., and Gaines, S. D. 2004. Population demographics in species with biphasic life cycles. Ecology 85: 1661–1674.
  • Tom Dieck, I. 1992. North Pacific and North Atlantic digitate Laminaria species (Phaeophyta): hybridization experiments and temperature responses. Phycologia 31: 147–163.
  • Tronholm, A., Steen, F., Tyberghein, L., Leliaert, F., Verbruggen, H., Antonia Ribera Siguan, M., and De Clerck, O. 2010. Species delimitation, taxonomy, and biogeography of Dictyota in Europe (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 46: 1301–1321.
  • Tseng, C. K. 1981. Commercial cultivation. Bot. Monogr. 17: 680–725.
  • Valero, M., Richerd, S., Perrot, V., and Destombe, C. 1992. Evolution of alternation of haploid and diploid phases in life cycles. Trends Ecol. Evol. 7: 25–29.
  • Van Heeckeren, W. J., Dorris, D. R., and Struhl, K. 1998. The mating-type proteins of fission yeast induce meiosis by directly activating mei3 transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18: 7317–7326.
  • Vásquez, J. A., Zuñiga, S., Tala, F., Piaget, N., Rodríguez, D. C., and Vega, J. M. A. 2014. Economic valuation of kelp forests in northern Chile: values of goods and services of the ecosystem. J. Appl. Phycol. 26: 1081–1088.
  • Vergés, A., Doropoulos, C., Malcolm, H. A., Skye, M., Garcia-Pizá, M., Marzinelli, E. M., Campbell, A. H., Ballesteros, E., Hoey, A. S., Vila-Concejo, A., Bozec, Y.-M., and Steinberg, P. D. 2016. Long-term empirical evidence of ocean warming leading to tropicalization of fish communities, increased herbivory, and loss of kelp. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 113: 13791–13796.
  • Vergés, A., McCosker, E., Mayer‐Pinto, M., Coleman, M. A., Wernberg, T., Ainsworth, T., and Steinberg, P. D. 2019. Tropicalisation of temperate reefs: implications for ecosystem functions and management actions. Funct. Ecol. 33: 1000–1013.
  • Vergés, A., Steinberg, P. D., Hay, M. E., Poore, A. G. B., Campbell, A. H., Ballesteros, E., Heck, K. L., Booth, D. J., Coleman, M. A., Feary, D. A., Figueira, W., Langlois, T., Marzinelli, E. M., Mizerek, T., Mumby, P. J., Nakamura, Y., Roughan, M., van Sebille, E., Gupta, A. S., Smale, D. A., Tomas, F., Wernberg, T., and Wilson, S. K. 2014. The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts. Proc. Biol. Sci. 281: 20140846.
  • Vermeij, G. J., Banker, R., Capece, L. R., Hernandez, E. S., Salley, S. O., Vriesman, V. P., and Wortham, B. E. 2019. The coastal North Pacific: origins and history of a dominant marine biota. J. Biogeogr. 46: 1–18.
  • Vieira, C. 2020. Lobophora–coral interactions and phase shifts: summary of current knowledge and future directions. Aquat. Ecol. 54: 1–20.
  • Vieira, C., Camacho, O., Sun, Z., Fredericq, S., Leliaert, F., Payri, C., and De Clerck, O. 2017. Historical biogeography of the highly diverse brown seaweed Lobophora (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 110: 81–92.
  • Vieira, C., Camacho, O., Wynne, M. J., Mattio, L., Anderson, R. J., Bolton, J. J., Sansón, M., D'hondt, S., Leliaert, F., Fredericq, S., Payri, C., and De Clerck, O. 2016. Shedding new light on old algae: matching names and sequences in the brown algal genus Lobophora (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae). Taxon 65: 689–707.
  • Wang, M., Hu, C., Barnes, B.B., Mitchum, G., Lapointe, B., and Montoya, J. P. 2019. The great Atlantic Sargassum belt. Science 365: 83–87.
  • Wargacki, A. J., Leonard, E., Win, M. N., Regitsky, D. D., Santos, C. N. S., Kim, P. B., Cooper, S. R., Raisner, R. M., Herman, A., Sivitz, A. B., Lakshmanaswamy, A., Kashiyama, Y., Baker, D., and Yoshikuni, Y. 2012. An engineered microbial platform for direct biofuel production from brown macroalgae. Science 335: 308–313.
  • Wehr, J. D. 2015. Brown algae. In Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification; Wehr, J., Sheath, R., and Kociolek, J. P., Eds. Elsevier, Massachusetts, USA, pp 851–871.
  • Wehr, J. D., and Stein, J. R. 1985. Studies on the biogeography and ecology of the freshwater phaeophycean alga Heribaudiella Fluviatilis. J. Phycol. 21: 81–93.
  • Wehr, J. D., Sheath, R. G., and Kociolek, J. P., Eds. 2015. Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. Elsevier, Massachusetts, USA.
  • Wehr, J. D., Stancheva, R., Truhn, K., and Sheath, R. G. 2013. Discovery of the rare freshwater brown alga Pleurocladia lacustris (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) in California streams. West. N. Am. Nat. 73: 148–157.
  • Wernberg, T., Krumhansl, K., Filbee-Dexter, K., and Pedersen, M. F. 2019. Status and trends for the world’s kelp forests. In: World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation. p. 57–78. Sheppard, C., Ed. Elsevier, Massachusetts, USA.
  • West, J. 1996. Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye from the Hopkins River Falls, Victoria - the first record of a freshwater brown alga in Australia. Muelleria 9: 29–33.
  • Wetherbee, R., Jackson, C. J., Repetti, S. I., Clementson, L. A., Costa, J. F., van de Meene, A., Crawford, S., and Verbruggen, H. 2019. The golden paradox – a new heterokont lineage with chloroplasts surrounded by two membranes. J. Phycol. 55: 257–278.
  • Wiencke, C., and Amsler, C. D. 2012. Seaweeds and their communities in polar regions. Vol. 219. In Seaweed Biology. Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis); Wiencke C., and Bischof K., Eds. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp 265–291.
  • Wiencke, C., Clayton, M. N., Gómez, I., Iken, K., Lüder, U. H., Amsler, C. D., Karsten, U., Hanelt, D., Bischof, K., and Dunton, K. 2007. Life strategy, ecophysiology and ecology of seaweeds in polar waters. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 6: 95–126.
  • Wiesemeier, T., Hay, M., and Pohnert, G. 2007. The potential role of wound-activated volatile release in the chemical defence of the brown alga Dictyota dichotoma: blend recognition by marine herbivores. Aquat. Sci. 69: 403–412.
  • Wynne, M. J., and Bold, H. C. 1985. Introduction to the Algae: Structure and Reproduction. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, USA.
  • Yang, E. C., Boo, G. H., Kim, H. J., Cho, S. M., Boo, S. M., Andersen, R. A., and Yoon, H. S. 2012. Supermatrix data highlight the phylogenetic relationships of photosynthetic Stramenopiles. Protist 163: 217–231.
  • Yang, E. C., Peters, A. F., Kawai, H., Stern, R., Hanyuda, T., Bárbara, I., Müller, D. G., Strittmatter, M., van Reine, W. F. P., and Küpper, F. C. 2014. Ligulate Desmarestia (Desmarestiales, Phaeophyceae) revisited: D. japonica sp. nov. and D. dudresnayi differ from D. ligulata. J. Phycol. 50: 149–166.
  • Ye, N., Zhang, X., Miao, M., Fan, X., Zheng, Y., Xu, D., Wang, J., Zhou, L., Wang, D., Gao, Y., Wang, Y., Shi, W., Ji, P., Li, D., Guan, Z., Shao, C., Zhuang, Z., Gao, Z., Qi, J., and Zhao, F. 2015. Saccharina genomes provide novel insight into kelp biology. Nat. Commun. 6: 6986.
  • Yip, Z. T., Quek, R. Z. B., and Huang, D. 2020. Historical biogeography of the widespread macroalga Sargassum (Fucales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 56: 300–309.
  • Zardi, G. I., Nicastro, K. R., Canovas, F., Costa, J. F., Serrao, E. Á., and Pearson, G. A. 2011. Adaptive traits are maintained on steep selective gradients despite gene flow and hybridization in the intertidal zone. PLoS One 6: e19402.
  • Zhang, J., Yao, J., Hu, Z.-M., Jueterbock, A., Yotsukura, N., Krupnova, T. N., Nagasato, C., and Duan, D. 2019. Phylogeographic diversification and postglacial range dynamics shed light on the conservation of the kelp Saccharina japonica. Evol. Appl. 12: 791–803.
  • Zuccarello, G. C., and Martin, P. 2016. Phylogeography of the Lessonia variegata species complex (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales) in New Zealand. Algae 31: 91–103.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.