References
- Armus, T. 2020. “’don’t Be a sheep’: Sheriffs Across U.S. Rebel Against New Statewide Mask Requirements.” The Seattle Times, June 26. https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/dont-be-a-sheep-sheriffs-across-u-s-rebel-against-new-statewide-mask-requirements/.
- Baden, D., K. McIntyre, and F. Homberg. 2019. “The Impact of Constructive News on Affective and Behavioural Responses.” Journalism Studies 20 (13): 1940–1959. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2018.1545599.
- Barker, K., M. Baker, and A. Watkins. 2021. “In City After City, Police Mishandled Black Lives Matter Protests.” The New York Times, Mar 20. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/20/us/protests-policing-george-floyd.html.
- Birzer, M. L., and C. Roberson. 2007. Policing Today and Tomorrow. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
- Bottoms, A., and J. Tankebe. 2013. “Criminology: Beyond Procedural Justice: A Dialogic Approach to Legitimacy in Criminal Justice.” The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102 (1): 119. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1011329174.
- Bradford, B., and P. Quinton. 2014. “Self-Legitimacy, Police Culture and Support for Democratic Policing in an English Constabulary.” The British Journal of Criminology 54 (6): 1023–1046. doi:10.1093/bjc/azu053.
- Brown, G. R. 2016. “The Blue Line on Thin Ice: Police Use of Force Modifications in the Era of Cameraphones and Youtube.” The British Journal of Criminology 56 (2): 293–312. doi:10.1093/bjc/azv052.
- Byers, C. 2014. “Crime Up After Ferguson and More Police Needed, Top St. Louis Area Chiefs Say.” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Nov 15. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1625130590.
- Capellan, J. A., R. Lautenschlager, and J. R. Silva. 2020. “Deconstructing the Ferguson Effect: A Multilevel Mediation Analysis of Public Scrutiny, De-Policing, and Crime.” Journal of Crime & Justice 43 (2): 125–144. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2019.1652921.
- Cassell, P. G. 2020. “Explaining the Recent Homicide Spikes in U.S. Cities: The “Minneapolis Effect” and the Decline in Proactive Policing.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 33 (1–2): 83–127. doi:10.1525/fsr.2020.33.1-2.83.
- Chanin, J., and B. Sheats. 2018. “Depolicing as Dissent Shirking.” Criminal Justice Review 43 (2): 105–126. (Atlanta, Ga.). doi:10.1177/0734016817704696.
- Cheng, C., and W. Long. 2022. “The Effect of Highly Publicized Police Killings on Policing: Evidence from Large U.S. Cities.” Journal of Public Economics 206: 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104557.
- Chermak, S., and A. Weiss. 2005. ““Maintaining Legitimacy Using External Communication Strategies: An Analysis of Police-Media Relations.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33 (5): 501–512. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2005.06.001.
- Chirstopher, D., J. Maskaly, L. Fridell, and W. G. Jennings. 2015. “Policing and Procedural Justice: A State-Of-The-Art Review.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 38 (1): 153–172. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2014-0129.
- Comey, J. B. 2015. “FBI – Law Enforcement and the Communities We Serve: Bending the Lines Toward Safety and Justice.” Federal Bureau of Investigation. States News Service, last modified Oct 23. https://www.fbi.gov/news/speeches/law-enforcement-and-the-communities-we-serve-bending-the-lines-toward-safety-and-justice.
- Crank, J. P. 2014. Understanding Police Culture. New York: Routledge.
- Davis, A. C. 2015. “’YouTube Effect’ Has Left Police Officers Under Siege, Law Enforcement Leaders Say.” Washingtonpost.Com, Oct 8. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2015/10/08/youtube-effect-has-left-police-officers-under-siege-law-enforcement-leaders-say/.
- Dobrin, A., S. Fallik, R. Deuchar, V. J. Crichlow, and S. Harris. (2021). Placing the Blame in the Post-Ferguson Era: An Exploration of Police Attributions for Crime, Their Declining Legitimacy, and the Breakdown of Justice. American Journal of Qualitative Research 5 (2): 36–56. doi:10.29333/ajqr/11032.
- Eversley, M. 2017. “Trump Tells Law Enforcement: “Don’t Be Too Nice to Suspects”.” USA Today, July 28. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/07/29/trump-tells-law-enforcement-dont-too-nice-suspects/522220001/.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2016. 2016 Crime in the United States, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2017. The Assailant Study – Mindsets and Behaviors, http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/MindsetReport.pdf.
- Gauthier, J. F., and L. M. Graziano. 2018. “News Media Consumption and Attitudes About Police: In Search of Theoretical Orientation and Advancement.” Journal of Crime & Justice 41 (5): 504–520. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2018.1472625.
- Goldsmith, A. 2015. “Disgracebook Policing: Social Media and the Rise of Police Indiscretion.” Policing & Society 25 (3): 249–267. doi:10.1080/10439463.2013.864653.
- Gollwitzer, A., C. Martel, W. J. Brady, P. Parnamets, I. G. Freedman, E. D. Knowles, and J. J. Van Bavel. 2020. “Partisan Differences in Physical Distancing are Linked to Health Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Nature Human Behaviour 4 (11): 1186–1197. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-00977-7.
- Gramlich, J., and K. Parker 2017. “Most Officers Say the Media Treat Police Unfairly.” Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/25/most-officers-say-the-media-treat-police-unfairly/.
- Graziano, L. M. 2019. “News Media and Perceptions of Police: A State-Of-The-Art-Review.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 42 (2): 209–225. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-11-2017-0134.
- Graziano, L. M., and J. Florence Gauthier. 2018. “Media Consumption and Perceptions of Police Legitimacy.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 41 (5): 593–607. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2016-0177.
- Gross, N., and M. Mann. 2017. “Is There a “Ferguson Effect?” Google Searches, Concern About Police Violence, and Crime in U.S. Cities, 2014-2016.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 3: 19–39. doi:10.1177/2378023117703122.
- Iyengar, S., and K. S. Hahn. 2009. “Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use.” The Journal of Communication 59 (1): 19–39. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x.
- Kasakove, S. 2021. “Los Angeles County’s Sheriff Declines to Enforce the Mask Mandate About to Resume.” The New York Times, July 17. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/17/world/los-angeles-sheriff-mask.html.
- Kyle, J. M., B. Coleman, R. W. David, and A. S. Joseph. 2019. “Analyzing the State of U.S. Policing.” Law Enforcement Bulletin, July 9. https://leb.fbi.gov/articles/featured-articles/analyzing-the-state-of-us-policing.
- Lee, E.J., and E. C. Tandoc. 2017. “When News Meets the Audience: How Audience Feedback Online Affects News Production and Consumption.” Human Communication Research 43 (4): 436–449. doi:10.1111/hcre.12123.
- Lockhart, P. R. 2019. “Police Posted Thousands of Offensive Memes on Facebook. Now Some of Them are Being Fired.” Vox, July 19. https://www.vox.com/identities/2019/7/19/20701048/police-officer-facebook-racism-philadelphia-plain-view-project.
- Lum, C., C. Maupin, and M. Stoltz. 2022. “The Supply and Demand Shifts in Policing at the Start of the Pandemic: A National Multi-Wave Survey of the Impacts of COVID-19 on American Law Enforcement.” Police Quarterly 0 (0): 109861112211482. doi:10.1177/10986111221148217.
- MacDonald, H. 2017. The War on Cops. New York: Encounter Books.
- Maguire, E. R. 2015. “New Directions in Protest Policing.” Saint Louis University Public Law Review 35 (1): 67–108.
- Marier, C. J., and L. A. Fridell. 2020. “Demonstrations, Demoralization, and De‐policing.” Criminology & Public Policy 19 (3): 693–719. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12492.
- Marier, C. J., and R. K. Moule. 2019. “Feeling Blue: Officer Perceptions of Public Antipathy Predict Police Occupational Norms.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 44 (5): 836–857. doi:10.1007/s12103-018-9459-1.
- McLaughlin, E. C. 2015. “We’re Not Seeing More Police Shootings, Just More News Coverage.” CNN Wire Service, Apr 19. https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/20/us/police-brutality-video-social-media-attitudes/index.html.
- Morgan, S., and J. Pally. 2016. Ferguson, Gray, and Davis: An Analysis of Recorded Crime Incidents and Arrests in Baltimore City, March 2010 Through December 2015. A report written for the 21st Century Cities Initiative at Johns Hopkins University. http://socweb.soc.jhu.edu/faculty/morgan/papers/MorganPally2016.pdf.
- Morin, R., K. Parker, R. Stepler, and A. Mercer. 2017. Behind the Badge: Amid Protests and Calls for Reform, How Police View Their Jobs, Key Issues and Recent Fatal Encounters Between Blacks and Police. Pew Research Center. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/01/11/behind-the-badge/.
- National Police Association. 2018. National Opinion Survey on Crime in America. National Police Association. https://nationalpolice.org/2018/11>NPA2018Survey.
- Newell, B. C. 2019. “Context, Visibility, and Control: Police Work and the Contested Objectivity of Bystander Video.” New Media & Society 21 (1): 60–76. doi:10.1177/1461444818786477.
- Nix, J., and J. T. Pickett. 2017. “Third-Person Perceptions, Hostile Media Effects, and Policing: Developing a Theoretical Framework for Assessing the Ferguson Effect.” Journal of Criminal Justice 51: 24–33. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.016.
- Nix, J., J. T. Pickett, and S. E. Wolfe. 2020. “Testing a Theoretical Model of Perceived Audience Legitimacy: The Neglected Linkage in the Dialogic Model of Police–Community Relations.” The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 57 (2): 217–259. doi:10.1177/0022427819873957.
- Nix, J., and S. E. Wolfe. 2016. “Sensitivity to the Ferguson Effect: The Role of Managerial Organizational Justice.” Journal of Criminal Justice 47: 12–20. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.06.002.
- Nix, J., and S. E. Wolfe. 2017. “The Impact of Negative Publicity on Police Self-Legitimacy.” Justice Quarterly 34 (1): 84–108. doi:10.1080/07418825.2015.1102954.
- Nix, J., and S. E. Wolfe. 2018. “Management-Level Officers’ Experiences with the Ferguson Effect.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 41 (2): 262–275. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-11-2016-0164.
- Nix, J., S. E. Wolfe, and B. A. Campbell. 2018. “Command-Level Police Officers’ Perceptions of the “War on Cops” and De-Policing.” Justice Quarterly 35 (1): 33–54. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1338743.
- Office of the Attorney General. 2017. “Supporting Federal, State, Local and Tribal Law Enforcement. Memorandum for Heads of Department Components and United States Attorneys.” https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/954916/download.
- Oliver, W. M. 2017. “Depolicing: Rhetoric or Reality?” Criminal Justice Policy Review 28 (5): 437–461. doi:10.1177/0887403415586790.
- Paternoster, R., R. Brame, P. Mazerolle, and A. Piquero. (1998). Using the Correct Statistical Test for the Equality of Regression Coefficients. Criminology 36 (4): 859–866. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01268.x.
- Phillips, S. W. 2020. “Exploring Law Enforcement’s Views of De-Policing: A Vignette Research Design.” Criminal Justice Studies 33 (2): 178–191. doi:10.1080/1478601X.2019.1699557.
- Premkumar, D. 2019. “Public Scrutiny, Police Behavior, and Crime Consequences: Evidence from High-Profile Killings.” Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3715223.
- Pyrooz, D. C., S. H. Decker, S. E. Wolfe, and J. A. Shjarback. 2016. “Was There a Ferguson Effect on Crime Rates in Large U.S. Cities?” Journal of Criminal Justice 46: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.01.001.
- Rantatalo, O. 2016. “Media Representations and Police Officers’ Identity Work in a Specialised Police Tactical Unit.” Policing & Society 26 (1): 97–113. doi:10.1080/10439463.2014.942844.
- Reynolds-Stenson, H. 2018. “Protesting the Police: Anti-Police Brutality Claims as a Predictor of Police Repression of Protest.” Social Movement Studies 17 (1): 48–63. doi:10.1080/14742837.2017.1381592.
- Rosenfeld, R. 2015. ‘Was There a “Ferguson Effect” on Crime in St. Louis?.’ Washington, DC: Sentencing Project. The Sentencing Project Policy Brief.
- Rosenfeld, R. 2016. Documenting and Explaining the 2015 Homicide Rise: Research Directions. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
- Rosenfeld, R. 2020. “Is De-Policing the Cause of the Spike in Urban Violence? Comment on Cassell.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 33 (1–2): 142–143. doi:10.1525/fsr.2020.33.1-2.142.
- Rosenfeld, R., S. Gaston, H. Spivak, and S. Irazola. 2017. Assessing and Responding to the Recent Homicide Rise in the United States. National Institute of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/251067.pdf.
- Rosenfeld, R., and E. Lopez Jr. 2020. “Pandemic, Social Unrest, and Crime in U.S. Cities.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 33 (1–2): 72–82. doi:10.1525/fsr.2020.33.1-2.72.
- Ross, D., S. Wyatt Fallik, and V. J. Crichlow. 2019. “Despondent Officer Narratives and the ‘Post-Ferguson’ Effect: Exploring Law Enforcement Perspectives and Strategies in a Southern American State.” Policing & Society 29 (9): 1042–1057. doi:10.1080/10439463.2018.1480020.
- Rotenberg, K. J., A. Harrison, and C. Reeves. 2016. “Police Officers’ Trust Beliefs in the Police and Their Psychological Adjustment.” Policing & Society 26 (6): 627–641. doi:10.1080/10439463.2014.1000324.
- Rushin, S., and G. Edwards. 2017. “De-Policing.” Cornell Law Review 102 (3): 721. doi:10.31228/OSF.IO/SC37V.
- Sandhu, A. 2016. “Camera-Friendly Policing: How the Police Respond to Cameras and Photographers.” Surveillance & Society 14 (1): 78–89. doi:10.24908/ss.v14i1.5697.
- Sasson, T. 1995. Crime Talk. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
- Schmucker, P. A. 2019. A Correlational Examination Among Law Enforcement Officers’ Operational Stress and Media Consumption. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://search.proquest.com/docview/2278078992.
- Seth, F., S. Goel, and J. M. Rao. 2016. “Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and Online News Consumption.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80 (S1): 298–320. doi:10.1093/poq/nfw006.
- Shjarback, J. A., D. C. Pyrooz, S. E. Wolfe, and S. H. Decker. 2017. “De-Policing and Crime in the Wake of Ferguson: Racialized Changes in the Quantity and Quality of Policing Among Missouri Police Departments.” Journal of Criminal Justice 50: 42–52. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.003.
- Tankebe, J., and G. Meško. 2015. “Police Self-Legitimacy, Use of Force, and Pro-Organizational Behavior in Slovenia.” In Trust and Legitimacy in Criminal Justice, 261–277. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-09813-5_12.
- Tewksbury, D., and J. Matthew Riles. 2015. “Polarization as a Function of Citizen Predispositions and Exposure to News on the Internet.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 59 (3): 381–398. doi:10.1080/08838151.2015.1054996.
- Turchan, B. 2020. “A High-Profile Police-Involved Shooting, Civil Unrest, and Officers’ Perceptions of Legitimacy: Insights from a Natural Experiment.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 17 (3): 507–518. doi:10.1007/s11292-020-09413-2.
- Tyler, T. R. 1990. Why People Obey the Law. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- U.S. Census Bureau. 2016a. “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates – 5 Year Estimate Data Profile.” U.S. Census Bureau https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=pasadena,%20ca&y=2016&tid=ACSDP5Y2016.DP05.
- U.S. Census Bureau. 2016b. “Selected Characteristics of the Native and Foreign-Born Populations – 5 Year Estimate Data Profiles.” U.S. Census Bureau., https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=pasadena,%20ca&y=2016&tid=ACSST5Y2016.S0501.
- Victor, D., L. Serviss, and A. Paybarah. 2020. “In His Own Words Trump on the Coronavirus and Masks.” The New York Times, October 2. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/us/politics/donald-trump-masks.html?smid=url-share.
- Waller, A. 2020. “4 San Jose Officers Put on Leave Amid Probe into Racist Facebook Posts.” The New York Times (Online), Jun 28. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/28/us/san-jose-police-facebook.html.
- Weitzer, R. 2002. “Incidents of Police Misconduct and Public Opinion.” Journal of Criminal Justice 30 (5): 397–408. doi:10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00150-2.
- Winton, R. 2021. “9 Oakland Police Officers Disciplined Over Racist, Sexist Social Media Posts.” Latimes.Com, Sep 20. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-09-20/9-oakland-police-officers-disciplined-over-social-media-posts.
- Wolfe, S. E., and J. Nix. 2016. “The Alleged “Ferguson Effect” and Police Willingness to Engage in Community Partnership.” Law and Human Behavior 40 (1): 1–10. doi: 10.1037/lhb0000164. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/lhb0000164.
- Young, D. G., H. Rasheed, A. Bleakley, and J. B. Langbaum. 2022. “The Politics of Mask-Wearing: Political Preferences, Reactance, and Conflict Aversion During COVID.” Social Science & Medicine 298: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114836.