Revisiting the Racial Threat Thesis: The Role of Police Organizational Characteristics in Predicting Race‐Specific Drug Arrest Rates

References

• Batton , C. 2004 . Gender differences in lethal violence: Historical trends in the relationship between homicide and suicide rates, 1960–2000 . Justice Quarterly , 21 : 423 – 461 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumer , E. 1994 . Poverty, crack and crime: A cross‐city analysis . Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency , 31 : 311 – 327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty , P. , Holman , B. and Schiraldi , V. 2000 . Poor prescription: The costs of imprisoning drug offenders in the United States Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://www.drugpolicy.org/docUploads/PoorPrescription.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Beckett , K. , Nyrop , K. and Pfingst , L. 2006 . Race, drugs, and policing: Understanding disparities in drug delivery arrests . Criminology , 44 : 105 – 137 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett , K. , Nyrop , K. , Pfingst , L. and Bowen , M. 2005 . Drug use, drug possession arrests, and the question of race: Lessons from Seattle . Social Problems , 52 : 419 – 441 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock , H. M. Jr. 1967 . Toward a theory of minority‐group relations , New York : Capricorn Books .
   Google Scholar
• Blau , P. M. 1970 . A formal theory of differentiation in organizations . American Sociological Review , 35 : 201 – 218 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumstein , A. 1993 . Racial disproportionality of U.S. prison populations revisited . University of Colorado Law Review , 64 : 751 – 773 .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , M. K. 1981 . Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform , New York : Russell Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Brownsberger , W. N. 2000 . Race matters: Disproportionality of incarceration for drug dealing in Massachusetts . Journal of Drug Issues , 30 : 345 – 374 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bursik , R. J. Jr. 1984 . Urban dynamics and ecological studies of delinquency . Social Forces , 63 : 393 – 413 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chappell , A. T. , MacDonald , J. M. and Manz , P. W. 2006 . The organizational determinants of police arrest decisions . Crime & Delinquency , 52 : 287 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chein , I. , Gerard , D. L. , Lee , R. S. and Rosenfeld , E. 1964 . The road to H , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Child , J. 1972 . Organization structure and strategies of control: A replication of the Aston study . Administrative Science Quarterly , 17 : 163 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. E. , Felson , M. and Land , K. C. 1980 . Property crime rates in the United States: A macrodynamic analysis, 1947–1977; with ex ante forecasts for the mid‐1980s . American Journal of Sociology , 86 : 90 – 118 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coker , D. 2003 . Foreword: Addressing the real world of racial injustice in the criminal justice system . Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 93 : 827 – 879 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crank , J. P. 1990 . The influence of environmental and organizational factors on police style in urban and rural environments . Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency , 27 : 166 – 189 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai , B. 1937 . Opium addiction in Chicago , Shanghai : The Commercial Press .
   Google Scholar
• DeFleur , L. B. 1975 . Biasing influences on drug arrest records: Implications for deviance research . American Sociological Review , 40 : 88 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle , D. 2005 . The influence of mandatory arrest policies, police organizational characteristics, and situational variables on the probability of arrest in domestic violence cases . Crime & Delinquency , 51 : 573 – 597 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle , D. , D'Alessio , S. J. and Stolzenberg , L. 2002 . Racial threat and social control: A test of the political, economic, and threat of black crime hypotheses . Social Forces , 81 : 557 – 576 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle , D. , Stolzenberg , L. and D'Alessio , S. J. 2005 . Police organizational factors, the racial composition of the police, and the probability of arrest . Justice Quarterly , 22 : 30 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ennett , S. T. , Flewelling , R. L. , Lindrooth , R. C. and Norton , E. C. 1997 . School and neighborhood characteristics associated with school rates of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 38 : 55 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation . 2007 . National‐incident based reporting system. General information Retrieved May 3, 2007, from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/faqs.htm
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , D. F. and Kessler , R. C. 1982 . “ Model specification in dynamic analysis of crime deterrence ” . In Deterrence reconsidered: Methodological innovations , Edited by: Hagan , J. 31 – 56 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , D. F. , Kessler , R. C. and Loftin , C. 1983 . The effect of police employment on crime . Criminology , 21 : 375 – 394 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg , D. F. , Kessler , R. C. and Loftin , C. 1985 . Social inequality and crime control . Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 76 : 684 – 704 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gujarati , D. N. 1995 . Basic econometrics , (3rd ed.) , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , R. H. 2002 . Organizations: Structures, processes, and outcomes , (8th ed.) , Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Holmes , M. D. 2000 . Minority threat and police brutality: Determinants of civil rights complaints in U.S. municipalities . Criminology , 38 : 343 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huber , P. J. 1981 . Robust statistics , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , P. I. 1986 . Black visibility, city size and social control . Sociological Quarterly , 27 : 185 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , P. I. 1989 . Minority group threat, crime, and policing: Social context and social control , New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , P. I. and Carroll , L. 1981 . Race and the war on crime: The sociopolitical determinants of municipal police expenditures . American Sociological Review , 46 : 290 – 305 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , D. 1979 . Inequality and police strength: Conflict theory and coercive control in metropolitan areas . American Sociological Review , 44 : 913 – 925 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , D. and Carmichael , J. T. 2002 . The political sociology of the death penalty: A pooled time‐series analysis . American Sociological Review , 67 : 109 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , D. and Helms , R. E. 1997 . Testing coercive explanations for order: The determinants of law enforcement strength over time . Social Forces , 75 : 1361 – 1392 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , D. and O'Brien , R. M. 1998 . The determinants of deadly force: A structural analysis of police violence . American Journal of Sociology , 103 : 837 – 862 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , D. and Wood , K. 1999 . Interracial conflict and interracial homicide: Do political and economic rivalries explain white killings of blacks or black killings of whites? . American Journal of Sociology , 105 : 157 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane , R. J. 2003 . Social control in the metropolis: A community‐level examination of the minority group‐threat hypothesis . Justice Quarterly , 20 : 265 – 295 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , J. O. and Mueller , C. W. 1978 . Factor analysis: Statistical methods and practical issues , Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Kitsuse , J. I. and Cicourel , A. V. 1963 . A note on the uses of official statistics . Social Problems , 11 : 131 – 139 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornhauser , R. R. 1978 . Social sources of delinquency: An appraisal of analytic models , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Krivo , L. J. and Peterson , R. D. 1996 . Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime . Social Forces , 75 : 619 – 648 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krivo , L. J. and Peterson , R. D. 2000 . The structural context of homicide: Accounting for racial differences in process . American Sociological Review , 65 : 547 – 559 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubrin , C. E. and Weitzer , R. 2003 . New directions in social disorganization theory . Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency , 40 : 374 – 402 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Land , K. C. , McCall , P. L. and Cohen , L. E. 1990 . Structural covariates of homicide rates: Are there any invariances across time and social space? . American Journal of Sociology , 95 : 922 – 963 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky , M. 1980 . Street‐level bureaucracy , New York : Russell Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Liska , A. E. 1992 . Social threat and social control , Albany, NY : SUNY Press .
   Google Scholar
• Liska , A. E. and Chamlin , M. B. 1984 . Social structure and crime control among macrosocial units . American Journal of Sociology , 90 : 383 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liska , A. E. , Lawrence , J. J. and Benson , M. 1981 . Perspectives on the legal order: The capacity for social control . American Journal of Sociology , 87 : 413 – 426 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald , J. M. 2002 . The effectiveness of community policing in reducing urban violence . Crime & Delinquency , 48 : 592 – 618 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddala , G. S. 1977 . Econometrics , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Maguire , E. R. . Police organizational structure and child sexual abuse case resolution patterns . Paper presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences meeting . Chicago. April ,
   Google Scholar
• Maguire , E. R. 2003 . Organizational structure in American police agencies: Context, complexity, and control , Albany, NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mastrofski , S. D. , Richard , R. R. and Hoffsmaster , D. 1987 . Organizational determinants of police discretion: The case of drinking‐driving . Journal of Criminal Justice , 15 : 387 – 402 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastrofski , S. D. and Ritti , R. R. 1996 . Police training and the effects of organization on drunk driving enforcement . Justice Quarterly , 13 : 291 – 320 .
   Google Scholar
• McCleary , R. , Nienstedt , B. C. and Erven , J. M. 1982 . Uniform crime reports as organizational outcomes: Three time series experiments . Social Problems , 29 : 361 – 372 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , J. G. 1996 . Search and destroy: African American males in the criminal justice system , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Monkkonen , E. H. 1981 . Police in urban America , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mosher , C. 2001 . Predicting drug arrest rates: Conflict and social disorganization perspectives . Crime & Delinquency , 47 : 84 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosher , C. and Hagan , J. 1994 . Constituting class and crime in upper Canada: The sentencing of narcotics offenders, circa 1908–1953 . Social Forces , 72 : 613 – 641 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office of National Drug Control Policy . 2004 . The economic costs of drug abuse in the United States, 1992–2002 , Washington, DC : Executive Office of the President . (Publication No. 207303)
   Google Scholar
• Olzak , S. 1992 . The dynamics of ethnic competition and conflict , Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ousey , G. C. and Lee , M. R. 2004 . Investigating the connections between race, illicit drug markets, and lethal violence, 1984–1997 . Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency , 41 : 352 – 383 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paoline , E. A. , Myers , S. M. and Worden , R. E. 2000 . Police culture, individualism, and community policing: Evidence from two police departments . Justice Quarterly , 17 : 575 – 605 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , K. F. and Maggard , S. R. 2005 . Structural theories and race‐specific drug arrests: What structural factors account for the rise in race‐specific drug arrests over time? . Crime & Delinquency , 51 : 521 – 547 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , K. P. and McCall , P. L. 1999 . Structural conditions and racial homicide patterns: A look at the multiple disadvantages in urban areas . Criminology , 37 : 447 – 478 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , K. F. , Stults , B. J. and Rice , S. K. 2005 . Racial threat, concentrated disadvantage and social control: Considering the macro‐level sources of variation in arrests . Criminology , 43 : 1111 – 1134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrow , C. 1979 . Complex organizations: A critical essay , (2nd ed.) , Glenview, IL : Scott Foresman .
   Google Scholar
• Quinney , R. 1977 . Class, state and crime , Philadelphia, PA : McKay .
   Google Scholar
• Reuss‐Ianni , E. 1983 . Two cultures of policing , New Brunswick, NJ : Transaction .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld , R. 1986 . “ Urban crime rates: effects of inequality, welfare dependency, region, and race ” . In The social ecology of crime , Edited by: Byrne , J. M. and Sampson , R. J. 116 – 130 . New York : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld , R. and Decker , S. H. 1999 . Are arrest statistics a valid measure of illicit drug use? The relationship between criminal justice and public health indicators of cocaine, heroin, and marijuana use . Justice Quarterly , 16 : 685 – 699 .
   Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. 1987 . Urban black violence: The effect of male Black joblessness and family disruption . American Journal of Sociology , 93 : 348 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Groves , W. B. 1989 . Community structure and crime: Testing social‐disorganization theory . American Journal of Sociology , 94 : 774 – 802 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Wilson , W. J. 1995 . Toward a theory of race, crime, and urban inequality , Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scott , W. R. and Davis , G. F. 2007 . Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Sever , B. 2001 . The relationship between minority populations and police force strength: Expanding our knowledge . Police Quarterly , 4 : 2868
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , C. R. and McKay , H. D. 1942 . Juvenile delinquency and urban areas , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Slovak , J. S. 1986 . Styles of urban policing: Organization, environment, and police styles in selected American cities , New York : New York University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Skolnick , J. H. 1994 . Justice without trial: Law enforcement in a democratic society , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , D. A. and Visher , C. A. 1981 . Street‐level justice: Situational determinants of police arrest determinants . Social Problems , 29 : 167 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier , D. J. and Allan , E. A. 1988 . Sex disparities in arrests by residence, race, and age: An assessment of the gender convergence/crime hypothesis . Justice Quarterly , 5 : 53 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier , D. J. and Haynie , D. 2000 . Gender, structural disadvantage, and urban crime: Do macrosocial variables also explain female offending rates? . Criminology , 38 : 403 – 438 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolzenberg , L. , D'Alessio , S. and Eitle , D. J. 2004 . A multilevel test of racial threat theory . Criminology , 42 : 673 – 698 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson , C. 1978 . The influence of organization and environment on arrest practices in major U.S. cities . Policy Studies Journal , 7 : 390 – 398 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talarico , S. M. and Swanson , C. R. 1978 . Styles of policing: A preliminary mapping . Policy Studies Journal , 7 : 398 – 406 .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , F. W. 1911 . The principles of scientific management , New York : Harper Brothers .
   Google Scholar
• Tonry , M. 1995 . Malign neglect , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Turk , A. 1969 . Criminality and legal order , Chicago : Rand McNally .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics . 2001 . “ Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS): 2000 Sample Survey of Law Enforcement Agencies [Computer file]. ICPSR version ” . Washington, DC : U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census [producer] . Ann Arbor, MI: Inter‐university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2003
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation . 2004 . “ Uniform Crime Reporting Program Data [United States]: Arrests by age, sex, and race, summarized yearly, 2000. [Computer file] ” . Edited by: ICPSR . Ann Arbor, MI : Inter‐university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor] . Compiled by the U.S. Dept. of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation
   Google Scholar
• Walker , S. 1983 . Employment of Black and Hispanic police officers: Trends in the 50 largest cities . Review of Applied Urban Research , 11 : 1 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , J. 1999 . Statistics in criminal justice: Analysis and interpretation , Gaithersburg, MD : Aspen .
   Google Scholar
• Warner , B. D. and Coomer , B. W. 2003 . Neighborhood drug arrest rates: Are they a meaningful indicator of drug activity? A research note . Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency , 40 : 123 – 138 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber , M. 1947 . The theory of social and economic organization , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , L. E. and Falcone , D. N. 2005a . Policing in the United States: Developing a comprehensive empirical model Washington, DC Final report to the National Institute of Justice
   Google Scholar
• Wells , L. E. and Falcone , D. N. 2005b . “ Developing a comprehensive empirical model of policing in the United States, 1996–1999 [Computer file]. ICPSR04338‐v1 ” . Normal, IL : Illinois State University [producer] . 2005. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter‐university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2006‐09‐06
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , J. Q. 1968 . “ The police and the delinquent in two cities ” . In Controlling delinquents , Edited by: Wheeler , S. 9 – 30 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , W. J. 1987 . The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass and public policy , Chicago : University of Chicago .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , W. J. 2003 . Race, class and urban poverty: A rejoinder . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 26 : 1096 – 1114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar