Opening Pandora’s Box: How Does Defendant Race Influence Plea Bargaining?

References

• Albonetti, C. A. (1987). Prosecutorial discretion: The effects of uncertainty. Law & Society Review, 21, 291-313.10.2307/3053523
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. (1989). Bail and judicial discretion in the district of Columbia. Sociology and Social Research, 74, 40-47.
   Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. (1991). An integration of theories to explain judicial discretion. Social Problems, 38, 247-266.10.2307/800532
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A. (1992). Charge reduction: An analysis of prosecutorial discretion in burglary and robbery cases. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 8, 317-333.10.1007/BF01064551
   Google Scholar
• Albonetti, C. A., & Hepburn, J. (1996). Prosecutorial discretion to defer criminalization: The effects of defendant’s ascribed and achieved status characteristics. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 12, 63-81.10.1007/BF02354471
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alschuler, A. W. (1979). Plea bargaining and its history. Columbia Law Review, 79(1), 1-43.10.2307/1122051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Austin, R. L., & Allen, M. D. (2000). Racial disparity in arrest rates as an explanation of racial disparity in commitment to Pennsylvania’s prisons. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 200-220.10.1177/0022427800037002003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013). Blindspot: Hidden biases of good people. New York, NY: Delacorte Press.
   Google Scholar
• Baumer, E., Messner, S., & Felson, R. (2000). The role of victim characteristics in the disposition of murder cases. Justice Quarterly, 17, 281-307.10.1080/07418820000096331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumer, E. P. (2013). Reassessing and redirecting research on race and sentencing. Justice Quarterly, 30, 231-261.10.1080/07418825.2012.682602
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beichner, D., & Spohn, C. (2005). Prosecutorial charging decisions in sexual assault cases: Examining the impact of a specialized prosecution unit. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 16, 461-498.10.1177/0887403405277195
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, D., & Frazier, C. (1984). The effects of gender on charge reduction. The Sociological Quarterly, 25, 385-396.10.1111/tsq.1984.25.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority-group relations. In H. W. Wilson (Ed.), Book review digest retrospective (pp. 1903-1982). New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Blumstein, A. (1982). On the racial disproportionality of United States’ prison populations. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 73, 1259-1281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumstein, A. (1993). Racial disproportionality of US prison populations revisited. University of Colorado Law Review, 64, 743-760.
   Google Scholar
• Bridges, G. S., & Steen, S. (1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63, 554-570.10.2307/2657267
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bushway, S. D., & Piehl, A. M. (2007). Social science research and the legal threat to presumptive sentencing guidelines. Criminology & Public Policy, 6, 461-482.
   Google Scholar
• Bushway, S., & Redlich, A. (2012). Is plea bargaining in the “Shadow of the Trial” a mirage? Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28, 437-454.10.1007/s10940-011-9147-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carson, E. A., & Golinelli, D. (2013). Prisoners in 2012. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Chambliss, W. J., & Seidman, R. B. (1971). Law, order, and power (1st ed.). Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, E. Y. (2008). The liberation hypothesis and racial and ethnic disparities in the application of California’s three strikes law. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 6, 83-102.10.1080/15377930802096462
   Google Scholar
• Chiricos, T., McEntire, R., & Gertz, M. (2001). Perceived racial and ethnic composition of neighborhood and perceived risk of crime. Social Problems, 48, 322-340.10.1525/sp.2001.48.3.322
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002). The police officer’s dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1314-1329.10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., Wittenbrink, B., Sadler, M., & Keesee, T. (2007). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1006-1023.10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, C., Chiricos, T., & Kleck, G. (1998). Race, racial threat, and sentencing of habitual offenders. Criminology, 36, 481-512.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyke, A. (2007). Electoral cycles in the administration of criminal justice. Public Choice, 133, 417-437.10.1007/s11127-007-9197-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edkins, V. A. (2011). Defense attorney plea recommendations and client race: Does zealous representation apply equally to all? Law and Human Behavior, 35, 413-425.10.1007/s10979-010-9254-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forst, B. (2002). Prosecution. In W. Petersilia & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime: Public policies for crime control (2nd ed., pp. 509-536). Oakland, CA: ICS Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frase, R. S. (2005). State sentencing guidelines: Diversity, consensus, and unresolved policy issues. Columbia Law Review, 105, 1190-1232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin, T. W. (2010). Community influence on prosecutorial dismissals: A multilevel analysis of case- and county-level factors. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 693-701.10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, P. A., & Haney, B. (1996). Sexual assault cases in the legal system: Police, prosecutor, and victim perspectives. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 607-628.10.1007/BF01499234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frederick, B., & Stemen, D. (2012). The anatomy of discretion: An analysis of prosecutorial decision making—technical report. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Free, M., Jr. (2002). Race and presentencing decisions in the United States: A summary and critique of the research. Criminal Justice Review, 27, 203-232.10.1177/073401680202700202
   Google Scholar
• Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007). An analysis of the New York City police department’s “stop-and-frisk” policy in the context of claims of racial bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 102, 1-28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley, R., Maddan, S., & Spohn, C. (2007). Prosecutorial discretion: An examination of substantial assistance departures in federal crack‐cocaine and powder‐cocaine cases. Justice Quarterly, 24, 382-407.10.1080/07418820701485379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helms, R., & Jacobs, D. (2002). The political context of sentencing: An analysis of community and individual determinants. Social Forces, 81, 577-604.10.1353/sof.2003.0012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. (2003). Racial and ethnic disparities in sentencing departures across modes of conviction. Criminology, 41, 449-490.10.1111/crim.2003.41.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. (2006). The multilevel context of criminal sentencing: Integrating judge- and county-level influences. Criminology, 44, 259-298.10.1111/crim.2006.44.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D., Ulmer, J. T., & Kramer, J. H. (2008). The social context of guidelines circumvention: The case of federal district courts. Criminology, 46, 737-783.10.1111/crim.2008.46.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, J. (2009). Implicit bias: A primer for courts. Williamsburg, VA: National Center for State Courts.
   Google Scholar
• Kang, J., Bennett, M. W., Carbado, D. W., Casey, P., Dasgupta, N., Faigman, D. L., … Mnookin, J. (2012). Implicit bias in the courtroom. UCLA Law Review, 59(5), 1-63.
   Google Scholar
• LaFree, G. D. (1985). Official reactions to Hispanic defendants in the Southwest. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 22, 213-237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman, M. D., Hariri, A., Jarcho, J. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (2005). An fMRI investigation of race-related amygdala activity in African-American and Caucasian-American individuals. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 720-722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutateladze, B., Lynn, V., & Liang, E. (2012). Do race and ethnicity matter in prosecution? Vera Institute of Justice. Retrieved October 29, 2013, from the Vera Institute of Justice web site: http://www.vera.org/pubs/do-race-and-ethnicity-matter-prosecution-review-empirical-studies
   Google Scholar
• Miethe, T. D. (1987). Charging and plea bargaining practices under determinate sentencing: An investigation of the hydraulic displacement of discretion. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 78, 155-176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, M. A. (1982). Common law in action: The prosecution of felonies and misdemeanors. Sociological Inquiry, 52(1), 1-15.10.1111/soin.1982.52.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagel, I., & Schulhofer, S. J. (1992). A tale of three cities: An empirical study of charging and bargaining practices under the federal sentencing guidelines. Southern California Law Review, 66, 501-579.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, E. B., & Lynch, M. J. (1991). Bias in formalized bail procedures. In M. J. Lynch & E. B. Patterson (Eds.), Race and criminal justice (pp. 36-53). New York, NY: Harrow and Heston.
   Google Scholar
• Phelps, E. A., O’Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738.10.1162/089892900562552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piehl, A., & Bushway, S. (2007). Measuring and explaining charge bargaining. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 23, 105-125.10.1007/s10940-006-9023-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyrooz, D. C., Wolfe, S. E., & Spohn, C. (2011). Gang-related homicide charging decisions: The implementation of a specialized prosecution unit in Los Angeles. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 22, 3-26.10.1177/0887403410361626
   Google Scholar
• Quinney, R. (1970). The social reality of crime. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Rachlinski, J. J., Johnson, S. L., Wistrich, A. J., & Guthrie, C. (2009). Does unconscious racial bias affect trial judges? Notre Dame Law Review, 84, 1195-1246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehavi, M. M., & Starr, S. (2012). Racial disparity in federal criminal charging and its sentencing consequences. University of Michigan Law & Econ, Empirical Legal Studies Center Paper, (12-002).
   Google Scholar
• Reskin, B. (2005). Unconsciousness raising: Countering stereotypes by changing the rules. Regional Review Q, 1, 33-37.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for non-response in surveys. New York, NY: John Wiley.10.1002/SERIES1345
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger, T. (2013). Punishing race: A continuing American dilemma. Law & Society Review, 47, 453-455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sellin, T. (1928). The negro criminal: A statistical note. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 140, 52-64.10.1177/000271622814000109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shermer, L. O., & Johnson, B. D. (2010). Criminal prosecutions: Examining prosecutorial discretion and charge reductions in U.S. Federal District Courts. Justice Quarterly, 27, 394-430.10.1080/07418820902856972
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, D. A. (1986). The plea bargaining controversy. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 77, 949-968.10.2307/1143445
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. J., & Levinson, J. D. (2011). The impact of implicit racial bias on the exercise of prosecutorial discretion. Seattle University Law Review, 35, 795-826.
   Google Scholar
• Spears, J., & Spohn, C. (1996). The effect of evidence factors and victim characteristics on prosecutors’ charging decisions in sexual assault cases. Justice Quarterly, 14, 501-524.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C. (2000). Thirty years of sentencing reform: The quest for a racially neutral sentencing process. In J. Horney (Ed.), Criminal justice 2000 (Vol. 3, pp. 427-501). Policies, processes, and decisions of the criminal justice system. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., Beichner, D., & Davis-Frenzel, E. (2001). Prosecutorial justifications for sexual assault case rejection: Guarding the “Gateway to Justice”. Social Problems, 48, 206-235.10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., & Cederblom, J. (1991). Race and disparities in sentencing: A test of the liberation hypothesis. Justice Quarterly, 8, 601-623.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., Gruhl, J., & Welch, S. (1987). The impact of the ethnicity and gender of defendants on the decision to reject or dismiss felony charges. Criminology, 25, 175-192.10.1111/crim.1987.25.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., & Fornango, R. (2009). U.S. attorneys and substantial assistance departures: Testing for interprosecutor disparity. Criminology, 47, 813-846.10.1111/crim.2009.47.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C., & Homey, J. (1993). Rape law reform and the effect of victim characteristics on case processing. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 383-409.10.1007/BF01064110
   Google Scholar
• Staats, C. (2013). Implicit bias review 2013. Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity. Retrieved October 22, 2013, from the Kirwan Institute website: http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/docs/SOTS-Implicit_Bias.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J. T., & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology, 36, 763-798.10.1111/crim.1998.36.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk, A. T. (1969). Criminality and legal order. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
   Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T., Kurlychek, M. C., & Kramer, J. H. (2007). Prosecutorial discretion and the imposition of mandatory minimum sentences. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44, 427-458.10.1177/0022427807305853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. (2012). Recent developments and new directions in sentencing research. Justice Quarterly, 29(1), 1-40.10.1080/07418825.2011.624115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T., & Johnson, B. D. (2004). Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology, 42, 137-178.10.1111/crim.2004.42.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau, State and County Quick Facts. (2011). Retrieved February 14, 2013, from the United States Census Bureau website: http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html
   Google Scholar
• Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2012). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Wooldredge, J., & Thistlethwaite, A. (2004). Bilevel disparities in court dispositions for intimate assault. Criminology, 42, 417-456.10.1111/crim.2004.42.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, R., & Engen, R. L. (2006). The effects of depth and distance in a criminal code on charging, sentencing, and prosecutor power. North Carolina Law Review, 84, 1935-1982.
   Google Scholar
• Zatz, M. S. (2000). The convergence of race, ethnicity, gender, and class on court decisionmaking: Looking toward the 21st century. Criminal Justice, 3, 503-552.
   Google Scholar