Focally Concerned About Focal Concerns: A Conceptual and Methodological Critique of Sentencing Disparities Research

References

• Albonetti, C. A. (1991). An integration of theories to explain judicial discretion. Social Problems , 38 (2), 247–266. doi:10.2307/800532
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amodio, D. , & Devine, P. (2006). Stereotyping and evaluation in implicit race bias: Evidence for independent constructs and unique effects on behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 , 652–661. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, A. L. , & Spohn, C. (2010). Lawlessness in the federal sentencing process: A test for uniformity and consistency in sentence outcomes. Justice Quarterly , 27 (3), 362–393. doi:10.1080/07418820902936683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkow, R. (2008). Institutional design and the policing of prosecutors: Lessons from administrative law. Stanford Law Review , 61 , 869–921.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett, K. , Nyrop, K. , & Pfingst, L. (2006). Race, drugs and policing: Understanding disparities in drug delivery arrests. Criminology , 44 (1), 105–138. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best, R. K. , Edelman, L. B. , Krieger, L. H. , & Eliason, S. R. (2011). Multiple disadvantages: An empirical test of intersectionality theory in EEO litigation. Law & Society Review , 45 (4), 991–1025. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00463.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blowers, A. N. , & Doerner, J. K. (2015). Sentencing outcomes of the older prison population: An exploration of the age leniency argument. Journal of Crime and Justice , 38 (1), 58–76. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2013.822161
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodenhausen, G. V. , & Richeson, J. A. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science , 341–383.
   Google Scholar
• Bordua, D. J. (1961). Delinquent subcultures: Sociological interpretations of gang delinquency. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 338 (1), 119–136. doi:10.1177/000271626133800113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen, D. M. (2009). Calling your bluff: How prosecutors and defense attorneys adapt plea bargaining strategies to increased formalization. Justice Quarterly , 26 (1), 2–29. doi:10.1080/07418820802180432
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, E. , & Nomura, K. (2015). And justice for all? Racial and ethnic disparities in federal drug courts in California and the US. California Journal of Politics &Policy , 7 (2), 1–20.
   Google Scholar
• Clair, M. , & Winter, A. (2016). How judges think about racial disparities: Situational decision‐making in the criminal justice system. Criminology , 54 (2), 332–359. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. P. (1962). Socio-economic class and area as correlates of illegal behavior among juveniles. American Sociological Review , 27 (6), 826–834. doi:10.2307/2090410
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum , 1989, 139–167.
   Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. W. (2011). From private violence to mass incarceration: Thinking intersectionally about women, race, and social control. UCLA Law Review , 59 , 1418–1472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow, M. S. , & Adrion, B. (2011). Focal concerns and police use of force: Examining the factors associated with Taser use. Police Quarterly , 14 (4), 366–387. doi:10.1177/1098611111423740
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow, M. S. , & Bales, W. (2006). Sentencing guidelines and focal concerns: The effect of sentencing policy as a practical constraint on sentencing decisions. American Journal of Criminal Justice , 30 (2), 285–304. doi:10.1007/BF02885896
   Google Scholar
• Demuth, S. , & Steffensmeier, D. (2004). Ethnicity effects on sentence outcomes in large urban courts: Comparisons among White, Black, and Hispanic defendants. Social Science Quarterly , 85 (4), 994–1011. doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00255.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doerner, J. K. , & Demuth, S. (2010). The independent and joint effects of race/ethnicity, gender, and age on sentencing outcomes in US federal courts. Justice Quarterly , 27 (1), 1–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio, J. F. (2001). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave. Journal of Social Issues , 57 (4), 829–849. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00244
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio, J. F. , Mann, J. , & Gaertner, S. L. (1989). Resistance to affirmative action: The implications of aversive racism. In Affirmative Action in Perspective (pp. 83–102). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Dvorak, R. (2000). Cracking the code: “Decoding” colorblind slurs during the congressional crack cocaine debates. Michigan Journal of Race & Law , 5 , 611–663.
   Google Scholar
• Eisenstein, J. , Flemming, R. B. , & Nardulli, P. F. (1988). The contours of justice: Communities and their courts . Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Erlanger, H. S. (1974). The empirical status of the subculture of violence thesis. Social Problems , 22 (2), 280–292. doi:10.2307/799764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everett, R. S. , & Wojtkiewicz, R. A. (2002). Difference, disparity, and race/ethnic bias in federal sentencing. Journal of Quantitative Criminology , 18 (2), 189–211. doi:10.1023/A:1015258732676
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federico, C. M. , & Sidanius, J. (2002). Racism, ideology, and affirmative action revisited: the antecedents and consequences of” principled objections” to affirmative action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 (4), 488. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.4.488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmeyer, B. , & Ulmer, J. T. (2011). Racial/ethnic threat and federal sentencing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 48 (2), 238–270. doi:10.1177/0022427810391538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernando Rodriguez, S. , Curry, T. R. , & Lee, G. (2006). Gender differences in criminal sentencing: Do effects vary across violent, property, and drug offenses?. Social Science Quarterly , 87 (2), 318–339. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00383.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischman, J. , & Schanzenbach, M. (2012). Racial disparities under the federal sentencing guidelines: The role of judicial discretion and mandatory minimums. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies , 9 (4), 729–764. doi:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2012.01266.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, E. L. , & Borgida, E. (2012). Intergroup disparities and implicit bias: A commentary. Journal of Social Issues , 68 (2), 385–398. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01753.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. The Handbook of Social Psychology , 2 (4), 357–411.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T. , & Taylor, S. (1991). Social cognition , 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, T. W. (2013). Sentencing Native Americans in US federal courts: An examination of disparity. Justice Quarterly , 30 (2), 310–339. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.605072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin, T. W. , Dittmann, L. , & Henry, T. K. S. (2017). Extralegal disparity in the application of intermediate sanctions: An analysis of US district courts. Crime & Delinquency , 63 (7), 839–874. doi:10.1177/0011128715607533
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin, T. W. , & Henry, T. K. S. (2019). Racial disparities in federal sentencing outcomes: Clarifying the role of criminal history. Crime & Delinquency . 1–30. doi:10.1177/0011128719828353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaertner, S. L. , & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. Dovidio & S. Gaertner , eds. Prejudice, discrimination, and racism: Theory and research . Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gaertner, S. L. , & Dovidio, J. F. (2005). Understanding and addressing contemporary racism: From aversive racism to the common in group identity model. Journal of Social Issues , 61 (3), 615–639. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00424.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, R. A. , Short, J. F., Jr , Cartwright, D. S. , & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1963). Values and gang delinquency: A study of street-corner groups. American Journal of Sociology , 69 (2), 109–128. doi:10.1086/223541
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G. , & Krieger, L. H. (2006). Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review , 94 (4), 945–967. doi:10.2307/20439056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G. , Poehlman, T. A. , Uhlmann, E. L. , & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 97 (1), 17–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, W. S. (1969). Two conflicting themes: Common values versus class differential values. American Sociological Review , 34 (5), 679–690. doi:10.2307/2092304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haney López, I. (2000). Institutional racism: Judicial conduct and a new theory of racial discrimination. Yale Law Review , 109 , 1717–1884.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, A. (2009). Attributions and institutional processing: How focal concerns guide decision-making in the juvenile court. Race and Social Problems , 1 (4), 243–256. doi:10.1007/s12552-009-9020-4
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, R. D. (2014). Focal concerns theory. In J. M. Miller (ed.). The encyclopedia of theoretical criminology (pp. 1–5). Walden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, R. D. , Maddan, S. , & Spohn, C. C. (2007a). Concerning conceptualization and operationalization: Sentencing data and the focal concerns perspective–A research note. Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice , 4 (1), 58–78.
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, R. D. , Maddan, S. , & Spohn, C. C. (2007b). Prosecutorial discretion: An examination of substantial assistance departures in federal crack‐cocaine and powder‐cocaine cases. Justice Quarterly , 24 (3), 382–407. doi:10.1080/07418820701485379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley, R. D. , & Tillyer, R. (2012). Defending the homeland: Judicial sentencing practices for federal immigration offenses. Justice Quarterly , 29 (1), 76–104. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.585140
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, D. F. (1981). Causal attribution and punishment for crime. Deviant Behavior , 2 (3), 207–230. doi:10.1080/01639625.1981.9967554
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hester, R. (2017). Judicial rotation as centripetal force: Sentencing in the court communities of South Carolina. Criminology , 55 (1), 205–235. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hewstone, M. , & Jaspars, J. (1982). Explanations for racial discrimination: The effect of group discussion on intergroup attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology , 12 (1), 1–16. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420120101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, G. E. , Vito, G. F. , & Grossi, E. L. (2012). The impact of race on the police decision to search during a traffic stop: A focal concerns theory perspective. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice , 28 (2), 166–183. doi:10.1177/1043986211425725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, G. E. , Ricketts, M. L. , Griffith, J. D. , & Jirard, S. A. (2013). Race and juvenile incarceration: A propensity score matching examination. American Journal of Criminal Justice , 38 (1), 1–12. doi:10.1007/s12103-012-9162-6
   Google Scholar
• Hofer, P. J. (2007). United States v. Booker as a natural experiment: Using empirical research to inform the federal sentencing policy debate. Criminology & Public Policy , 6 (3), 433–460. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00446.x
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, P. B. (1972). Paroling policy feedback. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 9 (2), 117–131. doi:10.1177/002242787200900205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, P. B. , & DeGostin, L. K. (1975). An argument for self-imposed explicit judicial sentencing standards. Journal of Criminal Justice , 3 (3), 195–206. doi:10.1016/0047-2352(75)90065-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huebner, B. M. , & Bynum, T. S. (2006). An analysis of parole decision making using a sample of sex offenders: A focal concerns perspective. Criminology , 44 (4), 961–991. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00069.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. (2018). In search of the missing link: Examining contextual variation in federal charge bargains across US district courts. Justice Quarterly , 35 (7), 1133–1165. doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1523447
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. , Ulmer, J. T. , & Kramer, J. (2008). The social context of Guidelines circumvention: The case of federal district courts. Criminology , 46 (3), 737–783. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00125.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. R. , Klahm, C. F. , & Maddox, H. G. (2015). An exploratory analysis of time lapses in serving arrest warrants: A focal concerns and disproportionate contact approach. Criminal Justice Review , 40 (4), 470–487. doi:10.1177/0734016815596043
   Google Scholar
• Kautt, P. M. (2002). Location, location, location: Interdistrict and intercircuit variation in sentencing outcomes for federal drug-trafficking offenses. Justice Quarterly , 19 (4), 633–671. doi:10.1080/07418820200095381
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, B. , Spohn, C. C. , & Hedberg, E. C. (2015). Federal sentencing as a complex collaborative process: Judges, prosecutors, judge–prosecutor dyads, and disparity in sentencing. Criminology , 53 (4), 597–623. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12090
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, N. J. , & Wright, R. F. (2016). The invisible revolution in plea bargaining: Managerial judging and judicial participation in negotiations. Texas Law Review , 95 (2), 325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohler-Hausmann, I. (2018). Misdemeanorland: Criminal courts and social control in an age of broken windows policing . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kramer, J. , & Ulmer, J. T. (2002). Downward departures for serious violent offenders: Local court “corrections” to Pennsylvania’s sentencing guidelines. Criminology , 40 (4), 897–932. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00977.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutateladze, B. L. , Andiloro, N. R. , Johnson, B. D. , & Spohn, C. C. (2014). Cumulative disadvantage: Examining racial and ethnic disparity in prosecution and sentencing. Criminology , 52 (3), 514–551. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12047
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman, P. (1968). Individual values, peer values, and subcultural delinquency. American Sociological Review , 33 (2), 219–235. doi:10.2307/2092389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiber, M. J. , & Peck, J. H. (2015). Race, gender, crime severity, and decision making in the juvenile justice system. Crime & Delinquency , 61 (6), 771–797. doi:10.1177/0011128712446898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light, M. T. , Massoglia, M. , & King, R. D. (2014). Citizenship and punishment: The salience of national membership in US criminal courts. American Sociological Review , 79 (5), 825–847. doi:10.1177/0003122414543659
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liska, A. E. (1969). Uses and misuses of tautologies in social psychology. Sociometry , 32 (4), 444–557. doi:10.2307/2786546
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Logan, M. W. , Dulisse, B. , Peterson, S. , Morgan, M. A. , Olma, T. M. , & Paré, P. P. (2017). Correctional shorthands: Focal concerns and the decision to administer solitary confinement. Journal of Criminal Justice , 52 , 90–100. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.08.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logue, M. A. (2017). The interactive effects of national origin and immigration status on Latino drug traffickers in US federal courts. Race and Justice , 7 (3), 276–296. doi:10.1177/2153368716647425
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. (2013). Institutionalizing bias: The death penalty, federal drug prosecutions, and mechanisms of disparate punishment. American Journal of Criminal Law , 41 , 91–131.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. (2016). Hard bargains: The coercive power of drug laws in federal court . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. (2018). 94 different countries? Time, place, and variations in federal criminal justice. Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law , 23 , 134–163.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. (2019). Booker circumvention: Adjudication strategies in the advisory sentencing guidelines era. NYU Review of Law & Social Change , 43 , 59–107.
   Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. , & Omori, M. (2014). Legal change and sentencing norms in the wake of Booker: The impact of time and place on drug trafficking cases in federal court. Law & Society Review , 48 , 411–445. doi:10.1111/lasr.12070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, M. , & Omori, M. (2018). Crack as proxy: Aggressive federal drug prosecutions and the production of black–white racial inequality. Law & Society Review , 52 (3), 773–809. doi:10.1111/lasr.12348
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, J. L. , & Yeung, K.-T. (2003). The use of the conceptual category of race in American sociology, 1937-99. Sociological Forum , 18 (4), 521–543. doi:10.1023/B:SOFO.0000003002.90428.c2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauer, M. (2004). Race, class, and the development of criminal justice policy. Review of Policy Research , 21 (1), 79–92. doi:10.1111/j.1541-1338.2004.00059.x
   Google Scholar
• Maynard, D. W. (1984). The structure of discourse in misdemeanor plea bargaining. Law & Society Review , 18 (1), 75–104. doi:10.2307/3053481
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. B. (1958). Lower class culture as a generating milieu of gang delinquency. Journal of Social Issues , 14 (3), 5–19. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1958.tb01413.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. B. (1959). Implications of urban lower-class culture for social work. Social Service Review , 33 (3), 219–236. doi:10.1086/640711
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. B. , Geertz, H. , & Cutter, H. S. (1961). Aggression in a boys’ street-corner group. Psychiatry , 24 (4), 283–298. doi:10.1080/00332747.1961.11023277
   Google Scholar
• Morrow, W. J. , Vickovic, S. G. , & Fradella, H. F. (2014). Examining the prevalence and correlates of a ‘senior citizen discount’ in US federal courts. Criminal Justice Studies , 27 (4), 362–386. doi:10.1080/1478601X.2014.947029
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, D. P. (1967). The urban Negro is the ‘urban problem’. Society , 4 (10), 36–38. doi:10.1007/BF03180076
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, D. P. (1969). On understanding poverty: Perspectives from the social sciences (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Murakawa, N. , & Beckett, K. (2010). The penology of racial innocence: The erasure of racism in the study and practice of punishment. Law & Society Review , 44 (3–4), 695–730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mustard, D. B. (2001). Racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in sentencing: Evidence from the US federal courts. The Journal of Law and Economics , 44 (1), 285–314. doi:10.1086/320276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagel, I. H. , & Schulhofer, S. J. (1992). A tale of three cities: An empirical study of charging and bargaining practices under the federal sentencing guidelines. Southern California Law Review , 66 , 501–566.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowacki, J. S. (2017). An intersectional approach to race/ethnicity, sex, and age disparity in federal sentencing outcomes: An examination of policy across time periods. Criminology & Criminal Justice , 17 (1), 97–116. doi:10.1177/1748895816642502
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omori, M. (2019). “Nickel and dimed” for drug crime: Unpacking the process of cumulative racial inequality. The Sociological Quarterly , 60 (2), 287–313. doi:10.1080/00380253.2018.1526049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ortiz, N. R. , & Spohn, C. C. (2014). Mitigating the effect of a criminal record at sentencing: Local life circumstances and substantial assistance departures among recidivists in federal court. Criminal Justice Policy Review , 25 (1), 3–28. doi:10.1177/0887403412459542
   Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, T. , & Meertens, R. (1995). ‘Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology , 25 (1), 57–75. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420250106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piehl, A. M. , & Bushway, S. D. (2007). Measuring and explaining charge bargaining. Journal of Quantitative Criminology , 23 (2), 105–125. doi:10.1007/s10940-006-9023-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratto, F. , Sidanius, J. , Stallworth, L. M. , & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 (4), 741–763. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.4.741
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priestino, R. R. (1976). A comparative analysis of the functioning of ex-offenders and parole officers as parole agents (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University).
   Google Scholar
• Provine, D. M. (2008). Unequal under law: Race in the war on drugs . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rehavi, M. , & Starr, S. (2014). Racial disparity in federal criminal sentences. Journal of Political Economy , 122 (6), 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandefur, R. L. (2008). Access to civil justice and race, class, and gender inequality. Annual Review of Sociology , 34 (1), 339–358. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134534
   Google Scholar
• Scheepers, D. , Spears, R. , Doosje, B. , & Manstead, A. S. (2006). Diversity in in-group bias: Structural factors, situational features, and social functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 90 (6), 944–960. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulhofer, S. J. , & Nagel, I. H. (1989). Negotiated pleas under the federal sentencing guidelines: The first fifteen months. American Criminal Law Review , 27 , 231–288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulhofer, S. J. , & Nagel, I. H. (1996). Plea negotiations under the federal sentencing guidelines: Guideline circumvention and its dynamics in the post-Mistretta period. Northwestern University Law Review , 91 , 1284–1316.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C. C. , & Belenko, S. (2013). Do the drugs, do the time? The effect of drug abuse on sentences imposed on drug offenders in three US district courts. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 40 (6), 646–670. doi:10.1177/0093854812468433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, C. C. , Kim, B. , Belenko, S. , & Brennan, P. K. (2014). The direct and indirect effects of offender drug use on federal sentencing outcomes. Journal of Quantitative Criminology , 30 (3), 549–576. doi:10.1007/s10940-014-9214-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stemen, D. , Rengifo, A. F. , & Amidon, E. (2015). The focal concerns of sentencing and mandatory sentencing laws: circumvention in the context of mandatory probation and treatment. Journal of Crime and Justice , 38 (2), 183–203. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2014.883573
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. (1980). Assessing the impact of the women's movement on sex-based differences in the handling of adult criminal defendants. Crime & Delinquency , 26 (3), 344–357. doi:10.1177/001112878002600305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. , & Demuth, S. (2001). Ethnicity and judges’ sentencing decisions: Hispanic‐black‐white comparisons. Criminology , 39 (1), 145–178. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00919.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. , Kramer, J. , & Streifel, C. (1993). Gender and imprisonment decisions. Criminology , 31 (3), 411–446. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01136.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. , Kramer, J. , & Ulmer, J. T. (1995). Age differences in sentencing. Justice Quarterly , 12 (3), 583–602.
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. , Painter-Davis, N. , & Ulmer, J. T. (2017). Intersectionality of race, ethnicity, gender, and age on criminal punishment. Sociological Perspectives , 60 (4), 810–833.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, D. , Ulmer, J. T. , & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology , 36 (4), 763–798. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information , 13 (2), 65–93. doi:10.1177/053901847401300204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology , 33 (1), 1–39. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaxton, S. (2018). Disentangling disparity: Exploring racially disparate effect and treatment in capital charging. American Journal of Criminal Law , 45 (1), 95–166.
   Google Scholar
• Tonry, M. , & Melewski, M. (2008). The malign effects of drug and crime control policies on Black Americans. Crime & Justice , 37 , 1–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. (2005). The localized uses of federal sentencing guidelines in four U.S. district courts: Evidence of processual order. Symbolic Interaction , 28 (2), 255–279. doi:10.1525/si.2005.28.2.255
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. (2012). Recent developments and new directions in sentencing research. Justice Quarterly , 29 (1), 1–40. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.624115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. (2019). Criminal courts as inhabited institutions: Making sense of difference and similarity in sentencing. Crime & Justice , 48 (1), 483–522.
   Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , & Bradley, M. S. (2006). Variation in trial penalties among serious violent offenses. Criminology , 44 (3), 631–670.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , & Bradley, M. S. (2018). Punishment in Indian country: Ironies of federal punishment of Native Americans. Justice Quarterly , 35 (5), 751–781.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , Eisenstein, J. , & Johnson, B. D. (2010). Trial penalties in federal sentencing: Extra-guidelines factors and district variation. Justice Quarterly , 27 (4), 560–592.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , & Johnson, B. D. (2004). Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology , 42 (1), 137–177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , & Johnson, B. D. (2017). Organizational conformity and punishment: Federal court communities and judge-initiated guidelines departures. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology , 107 (2), 253–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , Light, M. T. , & Kramer, J. (2011a). The “liberation” of federal judges’ discretion in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision: Is there increased disparity and divergence between courts?. Justice Quarterly , 28 (6), 799–837. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.553726
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , Light, M. T. , & Kramer, J. (2011b). Racial disparity in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision: An alternative analysis to the USSC's 2010 report. Criminology & Public Policy , 10 , 1077–1118. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2011.00761.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, J. T. , Painter-Davis, N. , & Tinik, L. (2016). Disproportional imprisonment of Black and Hispanic males: Sentencing discretion, processing outcomes, and policy structures. Justice Quarterly , 33 (4), 642–681.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission . (1995). Special report to Congress: Cocaine and federal sentencing policy. February , 1995. Retrieved from: http://www.ussc.gov/crack/exec.htm
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission . (2002). Report to Congress: Cocaine and federal sentencing policy. May, 2002 . Retrieved from: http://www.ussc.gov/r_congress/02crack/2002crackrpt.htm
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission (2018). Guidelines Manual 2018 . Washington, DC: US Sentencing Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Valadez, M. , & Wang, X. (2017). Citizenship, legal status, and federal sentencing outcomes: examining the moderating effects of age, gender, and race/ethnicity. The Sociological Quarterly , 58 (4), 670–700. doi:10.1080/00380253.2017.1354736
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentine, C. A. (1968). Culture and poverty; critique and counter-proposals. Current Anthropology , 10 (2/3), 181–201.
   Google Scholar
• Van Cleve, N. G. (2016). Crook county: Racism and injustice in America's largest criminal court . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ward, G. , Farrell, A. , & Rousseau, D. (2009). Does racial balance in workforce representation yield equal justice? Race relations of sentencing in federal court organizations. Law & Society Review , 43 , 757–806. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2009.00388.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, J. T. , Hartley, R. D. , & Tillyer, R. (2016). Unpacking gender and racial/ethnic biases in the federal sentencing of drug offenders: A causal mediation approach. Journal of Criminal Justice , 46 , 196–206. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.05.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wax, D. E. (1974). Self-concept in Negro and white pre-adolescent delinquent boys. The British Journal of Criminology , 14 (2), 165–171. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a046534
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner, B. (2008). Reflections on the history of attribution theory and research: People, personalities, publications, problems. Social Psychology , 39 (3), 151–156. doi:10.1027/1864-9335.39.3.151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins, L. T. , Gelman, A. M. , Kress, J. M. , & Calpin, J. C. (1978). Sentencing guidelines: Structuring judicial discretion . National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Washington D.C.: US Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, S. E. , Pyrooz, D. C. , & Spohn, C. C. (2011). Unraveling the effect of offender citizenship status on federal sentencing outcomes. Social Science Research , 40 (1), 349–362. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, J. , & D’Angelo, J. M. (2014). Unwarranted disparity in federal sentencing: Noncitizen crime as a social/group threat. Criminal Justice Review , 39 (1), 58–80. doi:10.1177/0734016814522644
   Google Scholar
• Wu, J. , & Kim, D. Y. (2014). The model minority myth for noncitizen immigration offenses and sentencing outcomes. Race and Justice , 4 (4), 303–332. doi:10.1177/2153368713507000
   Google Scholar
• Zalman, M. (1977). The rise and fall of the indeterminate sentence. Wayne Law Review , 24 , 45–94.
   Google Scholar
• Zuberi, T. (2000). Deracializing social statistics: Problems in the quantification of race. Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science , 568 , 172–185. doi:10.1177/0002716200568001013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar