Event-specific and individual factors impacting college students’ decisions to intervene in a potentially risky scenario

References

• Fisher BS, Cullen FT, Turner MG. Report No. NCJ-182369: The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, 2000. doi:10.1037/e377652004-001.
   Google Scholar
• Hines D, Armstrong J, Reed K, et al. Gender differences in sexual assault victimization among college students. Violence Vict. 2012;27(6):922–940. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.6.922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler KA, Schmitz RM, Adams SA. Alcohol expectancy, drinking behavior, and sexual victimization among female and male college students. J Interpers Violence. 2017;32(15):2298–2322. doi:10.1177/0886260515591280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantor D, Fisher B, Chibnall S, et al. Report on the AAU Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct. Rockville, MD: Westat; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards KM, Sylaska KM, Neal AM. Intimate partner violence among sexual minority populations: A critical review of the literature and agenda for future research. Psychol Violence. 2015;5(2):112–120. doi:10.1037/a0038656.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garofalo R, Deleon J, Osmer E, et al. Overlooked, misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2006;38(3):230–236. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clements-Nolle K, Marx R, Katz M. Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. J Homosex. 2006;51(3):53–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banyard VL, Plante EG, Moynihan MM. Report No. 2002-WG-BX-0009: Rape Prevention through Bystander Education: Bringing a Broader Community Perspective to Sexual Violence Prevention. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Coker AL, Bush HM, Fisher BS, et al. Multi-college bystander intervention evaluation for violence prevention. Am J Prev Med. 2016;50(3):295–302. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.08.034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidycz CA, Orchowski LM, Berkowitz AD. Preventing sexual aggression among college men: An evaluation of a social norms and bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women. 2011;17(6):720–742. doi:10.1177/1077801211409727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latané B, Darley JM. The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1970.
   Google Scholar
• Söchting I, Fairbrother N, Koch WJ. Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women. 2004;10(1):73–93. doi:10.1177/1077801203255680.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daigle LE, Fisher BS, Stewart M. The effectiveness of sexual victimization prevention among college students: A summary of “what works. Victims Offend. 2009;4(4):398–404. doi:10.1080/15564880903227529.
   Google Scholar
• DeGue S, Valle LA, Holt MK, et al. A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggress Violent Behav. 2014;19(4):346–362. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahon S, Banyard VL. When can I help? A conceptual framework for the prevention of sexual violence through bystander intervention. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2012;13(1):3–14. doi:10.1177/1524838011426015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoxmeier JC, Flay BR, Acock AC. Control, norms, and attitudes: Differences between students who do and do not intervene as bystanders to sexual assault. J Interpers Violence. 2018;33(15):2379–2401. doi:10.1177/0886260515625503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart TC, Miethe TD. Exploring bystander presence and intervention in nonfatal violent victimization: When does helping really help. Violence Vict. 2008;23(5):637–651. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.23.5.637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chabot HF, Tracy TL, Manning CA, et al. Sex, attribution, and severity influence intervention decisions of informal helpers in domestic violence. J Interpers Violence. 2009;24(10):1696–1713. doi:10.1177/0886260509331514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felson RB, Messner SF, Hoskin A. The victim–offender relationship and calling the police in assaults. Criminology. 1999;37(4):931–948. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00510.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandiver DM, Dupalo JR. Factors that affect college students' perceptions of rape: what is the role of gender and other situational factors? Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2013;57(5):592–612. doi:10.1177/0306624x12436797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies M, Walker J, Archer J, et al. The scripting of male and female rape. J Aggress Conflict Peace Res. 2013;5(2):68–76. doi:10.1108/17596591311313663.
   Google Scholar
• Porter J, Williams LM. Intimate violence among underrepresented groups on a college campus. J Interpers Violence. 2011;26(16):3210–3224. doi:10.1177/0886260510393011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes TL, Szalacha LA, Johnson TP, et al. Sexual victimization and hazardous drinking among heterosexual and sexual minority women. Addict Behav. 2010;35(12):1152–1156. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.07.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hequembourg AL, Bimbi D, Parsons JT. Sexual victimization and health-related indicators among sexual minority men. J LGBT Issues Couns. 2011;5(1):2–20. doi:10.1080/15538605.2011.554603.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gray C, Russell P, Blockley S. The effects upon helping behaviour of wearing pro‐gay identification. Br J Soc Psychol. 1991;30(2):171–178. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1991.tb00934.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shaw JI, Borough HW, Fink MI. Perceived sexual orientation and helping behavior by males and females: The wrong number technique. J Psychol Human Sex. 1994;6(3):73–81. doi:10.1300/j056v06n03_05.
   Google Scholar
• Planty M. Report No. NCJ 189100: Third-Party Involvement in Violent Crime, 1993–99. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Schuller RA, Stewart A. Police responses to sexual assault complaints: The role of perpetrator/complainant intoxication. Law Hum Behav. 2000;24(5):535–551. doi:10.1023/a:1005519028528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stormo KJ, Lang AR, Stritzke WG. Attributions about acquaintance rape: The role of alcohol and individual differences. J Appl Social Pyschol. 1997;27(4):279–305. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb00633.x..
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh B, Ningard H, Ven TV, et al. Victim ambiguity: Bystander intervention and sexual assault in the college drinking scene. Deviant Behav. 2016;37(4):401–418. doi:10.1080/01639625.2015.1026777.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoggen P. Behavior Settings: A Revision and Extension of Roger G. Barker's Ecological Psychology. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press; 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Howard W, Crano WD. Effects of sex, conversation, location, and size of observer group on bystander intervention in a high risk situation. Sociometry. 1974;37(4):491–507. doi:10.2307/2786423.
   Google Scholar
• Brewster M, Tucker JM. Understanding bystander behavior: The influence of and interaction between bystander characteristics and situational factors. Victims Offend. 2016;11(3):455–481. doi:10.1080/15564886.2015.1009593.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson EH Jr., Cracco EJ. Sexual aggression in bars: What college men can normalize. J Men’s Stud. 2008;16(1):82–96. doi:10.3149/jms.1601.82.
   Google Scholar
• Briggs E, Landry T, Wood C. Beyond just being there: An examination of the impact of attitudes, materialism, and self-esteem on the quality of helping behavior in youth volunteers. J Nonprofit Public Sect Market. 2007;18(2):27–45. doi:10.1300/j054v18n02_02.
   Google Scholar
• Judge TA, Bono JE. Relationship of core self-evaluations traits-self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability-with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol. 2001;86(1):80–92. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.86.1.80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura A. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. Am Psychol. 1982;37(2):122–147. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.37.2.122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LePine JA, Van Dyne L. Predicting voice behavior in work groups. J Appl Psychol. 1998;83(6):853–868. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.83.6.853.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed E. Stop it, that's enough’: Bystander intervention and its relationship to school connectedness and shame management. Vulnerable Child Youth Stud. 2008;3(3):203–213. doi:10.1080/17450120802002548.
   Google Scholar
• Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, Pabia S. Personal characteristics and contextual factors that determine “helping,” “joining in,” and “doing nothing” when witnessing cyberbullying. Aggress Behav. 2014;40(5):383–396. doi:10.1002/ab.21534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller AK, Amacker AM, King AR. Sexual victimization history and perceived similarity to a sexual assault victim: A path model of perceiver variables predicting victim culpability attributions. Sex Roles. 2011;64(5–6):372–381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson CM. Predictors of College Women’s Prosocial Bystander Intervention: Personal Characteristics, Sexual Assault History and Situational Barriers [doctoral dissertation]. Athens, OH: Ohio University; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Rojas-Ashe EE, Walker RV, Holmes SC, et al. Toward a more complete understanding of bystander willingness to help: What role does critical consciousness play? Sex Roles. 2019;81(7–8):415–427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orchowski LM, Berkowitz A, Boggis J, et al. Bystander intervention among college men: The role of alcohol and correlates of sexual aggression. J Interpers Violence. 2016;31(17):2824–2846. doi:10.1177/0886260515581904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly AH, Crowley M. Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychol Bull. 1986;100(3):283–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aviram H. What would you do? Conducting web-based factorial vignette surveys. In Gideon L, ed. Handbook of Survey Methodology for the Social Sciences. New York, NY: Springer; 2012:463–473. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3876-2_26.
   Google Scholar
• Applegate BK, Davis RK. Public views on sentencing juvenile murderers: The impact of offender, offense, and perceived maturity. Youth Violence Juvenile Justice. 2006;4(1):55–74. doi:10.1177/1541204005282312.
   Google Scholar
• Hogan NL, Lambert EG, Hepburn JR, et al. Is there a difference? Exploring male and female correctional officers' definition of and response to conflict situations. Women Criminal Justice. 2004;15(3–4):143–165. doi:10.1300/j012v15n03_07.
   Google Scholar
• Nix J, Pickett JT, Wolfe SE, et al. Demeanor, race, and police perceptions of procedural justice: Evidence from two randomized experiments. Justice Q. 2017;34(7):1154–1183. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett S, Banyard VL, Edwards KM. The impact of the bystander's relationship with the victim and the perpetrator on intent to help in situations involving sexual violence. J Interpers Violence. 2017;32(5):682–702. doi:10.1177/0886260515586373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg M. Conceiving the Self. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Wright LW, Adams HE, Bernat J. Development and validation of the Homophobia Scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 1999;21(4):337–347. doi:10.1023/A:1022172816258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grasmick HG, Tittle CR, Bursik RJ Jr., et al. Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime. J Res Crime Delinq. 1993;30(1):5–29. doi:10.1177/0022427893030001002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Rugiero KJ, et al. Award No. 2005-WG-BX-0006: Drug-Facilitated, Incapacitated, and Forcible Rape: A National Study. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2007. doi:10.1037/e667182007-001.
   Google Scholar
• Krahé B, Bieneck S, Scheinberger-Olwig R. The role of sexual scripts in sexual aggression and victimization. Arch Sex Behav. 2007;36(5):687–701. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9131-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowne DP, Marlowe D. A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. J Consult Psychol. 1960;24(4):349–354. doi:10.1037/h0047358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McMahon S, Banyard VL, McMahon SM. Incoming college students' bystander behaviors to prevent sexual violence. J Coll Stud Dev. 2015;56(5):488–493. doi:10.1353/csd.2015.0050.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boeringer SB. Influences of fraternity membership, athletics, and male living arrangements on sexual aggression. Violence Against Women. 1996;2(2):134–147. doi:10.1177/1077801296002002002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frintner MP, Rubinson L. Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol, fraternity membership, and sports team membership. J Sex Educ Ther. 1993;19(4):272–284. doi:10.1080/01614576.1993.11074089.
   Google Scholar
• Boswell AA, Spade JZ. Fraternities and collegiate rape culture: Why are some fraternities more dangerous places for women? Gender Soc. 1996;10(2):133–147. doi:10.1177/089124396010002003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ham LS, Wiersma-Mosley JD, Wolkowicz NR, et al. Effect of alcohol intoxication on bystander intervention in a vignette depiction of sexual assault. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2019;80(2):252–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leone RM, Haikalis M, Parrott DJ, et al. Bystander intervention to prevent sexual violence: The overlooked role of bystander alcohol intoxication. Psychol Violence. 2018;8(5):639–647. doi:10.1037/vio0000155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiersma-Mosley JD, Ham LS, Marcantonio T, et al. Intoxicated bystanders' alcohol expectancies and valuations and the ability to detect risk in a potential sexual assault. Addict Behav. 2020;108:106423. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayesh N. Sexual Assault Prevention on College Campuses and the Need to Include LGBTQ Students [honor’s thesis]. Portland, OR: Portland State Univerisity; 2017. doi:10.15760/honors.433.
   Google Scholar
• Turchik JA. Sexual victimization among male college students: Assault severity, sexual functioning, and health risk behaviors. Psychol Men Masc. 2012;13(3):243–255. doi:10.1037/a0024605.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dessel AB, Goodman KD, Woodford MR. LGBT discrimination on campus and heterosexual bystanders: Understanding intentions to intervene. J Divers Higher Educ. 2017;10(2):101–116. doi:10.1037/dhe0000015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim U. Individualism and Collectivism: A Psychological Cultural and Ecological Analysis. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Ruiz E. Hispanic culture and relational cultural theory. J Creativ Ment Health. 2005;1(1):33–55. doi:10.1300/j456v01n01_05.
   Google Scholar
• Ferreira PC, Simão AV, Ferreira A, et al. Student bystander behavior and cultural issues in cyberbullying: When actions speak louder than words. Comput Human Behav. 2016;60:301–311. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.059.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty RD, Cacioppo JT. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change. New York, NY: Springer; 1986. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1.
   Google Scholar
• Aosved AC, Long PJ. Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex Roles. 2006;55(7–8):481–492. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahon S. Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. J Am Coll Health. 2010;59(1):3–11. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.483715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson ME, Brems C, Alford-Keating P. Personality correlates of homophobia. J Homosex. 1997;34(1):57–69. doi:10.1300/j082v34n01_05.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soler-Baillo JM, Marx BP, Sloan DM. The psychophysiological correlates of risk recognition among victims and non-victims of sexual assault. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43(2):169–181. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costello BJ, Hope TL. Peer Pressure, Peer Prevention: The Role of Friends in Crime and Conformity. New York, NY: Routledge; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Zozula C, Costello BJ, Anderson BJ. Self-control, opportunity, and college students’ bystander intervention in sexually coercive situations. J Interpers Violence. 2018. doi:10.1177/088626051880885.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Boven L, Loewenstein G. Empathy gaps in emotional perspective taking. In: Malle BF, Hodges SD, eds. Other Minds: How Humans Bridge the Divide between Self and Others. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2005:284–297.
   Google Scholar
• Fishbein M, Ajzen I. Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley; 1975.
   Google Scholar
• Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior. Org Behav Human Decis Processes. 1991;50(2):179–221. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar