428
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Major Articles

Online racial discrimination and mental health among Black undergraduates: The moderating role of gender

, PhDORCID Icon, , PhD, , PhD, , MPH, MA, , MA, , MS, , MA, , MA & , MA show all
Pages 310-318 | Received 02 Feb 2021, Accepted 26 Dec 2021, Published online: 05 Apr 2022

References

  • Kline EA, Masia Warner C, Grapin SL, et al. Social anxiety and the relationship between discrimination and internalized racism in Black young adults. J Cogn Psychother. 2021;35(1):53–63. doi:10.1891/JCPSY-D-20-00030.
  • Pieterse AL, Todd NR, Neville HA, Carter RT. Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. J Couns Psychol. 2012;59(1):1–9. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0026208
  • Williams D, Lawrence J, Davis B. Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annu Rev Public Health. 2019;40:105–125. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750.
  • Britt-Spells AM, Slebodnik M, Sands LP, Rollock D. Effects of perceived discrimination on depressive symptoms among Black men residing in the United States: A meta-analysis. Am J Mens Health. 2016;12(1):1–21. doi:10.1177/1557988315624509.
  • Carter RT, Johnson VE, Kirkinis K, Roberson K, Muchow C, Galgay C. A meta-analytic review of racial discrimination: Relationships to health and culture. Race Soc Probl. 2019;11(1):15–32. doi:10.1007/s12552-018-9256-y.
  • Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model. Am Psycholog. 1999;54(10):805–816. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805.
  • Spencer MB, Dupree D, Hartmann T. A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Dev Psychopathol. 1997;9(4):817–833. 10.1017/S0954579497001454
  • Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA, Vu C. Understanding how discrimination can affect health. Health Serv Res. 2019;54(S2):1374–1388. doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13222.
  • Tynes BM, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Rose CA, Lin J, Anderson CJ. Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents. Dev Psychol. 2012;48(2):343–355. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0027032
  • Keum BT, Miller MJ. Racism in digital era: Development and initial validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale (PORS v1.0). J Couns Psychol. 2017;64(3):310–324. doi:10.1037/cou0000205.
  • Tynes BM, English D, Del Toro J, Smith N, Lozada F, Williams D. Trajectories of online racial discrimination and psychological functioning among. Child Dev. 2020;91(5):1577–1593. African American and Latino adolescents. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/cdev.13350.
  • Keum BT, Ahn LH. Impact of online racism on psychological distress and alcohol use severity: Testing ethnic-racial socialization and silence about race as moderators. Comput Human Behav. 2021;120:106773. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106773.
  • Yoon I. Why is it not just a joke? Analysis of Internet memes associated with racism and hidden ideology of colorblindness. J Cult Res Art Educ. 2016;33:92–123.
  • English D, Lambert SF, Tynes BM, Bowleg L, Zea MC, Howard LC. Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2020;66:101068. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068.
  • Duggan M. (2017). Online harassment 2017. Pew Research Center. Available at: http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/07/10151519/PI_2017.07.11_Online-Harassment_FINAL.pdf
  • Lenhart A. Teens, Social Media & Technology Overview 2015. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/04/09/teens-social-media-technology-2015/. Published April 9, 2015. Accessed February 15, 2022.
  • Tynes BM, Giang MT, Williams DR, Thompson GN. Online racial discrimination and psychological adjustment among adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2008;43(6):565–569. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.08.021
  • Himle JA, Baser RE, Taylor RJ, Campbell RD, Jackson JS. Anxiety disorders among African Americans, Blacks of Caribbean descent, and non-Hispanic Whites in the United States. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23(5):578–590. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.002
  • Keum BT, Hearns M. Online gaming and racism: Impact on psychological distress among Black, Asian, and Latinx emerging adults. Games Cult. 2021; 1-16. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/15554120211039082.
  • Hurd N, Varner F, Caldwell C, Zimmerman M. Does perceived racial discrimination predict changes in psychological distress and substance use over time? An examination among Black emerging adults. Dev Psychol. 2014;50(7):1910–1918. doi:10.1037/a0036438.
  • Pew Research Center. (2011). College students and technology. Available at: https://www.pewinternet.org/2011/07/19/college-students-and-technology/
  • Tynes BM, Rose CA, Markoe SL. Extending campus life to the Internet: Social media, discrimination, and perceptions of racial climate. J Divers Higher Educ. 2013;6(2):102–114. doi:http://doi.org/10.1037/a0033267.
  • Eschmann R. Unmasking racism: Students of color and expressions of racism in online spaces. Soc Probl. 2020;67(3):418–436. doi:http://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz026.
  • Gin KJ, Martínez-Alemán AM, Rowan-Kenyon HT, Hottell D. Racialized aggressions and social media on campus. J Coll Stud Dev. 2017;58(2):159–174. doi:10.1353/csd.2017.0013.
  • Brownlow B, Sosoo E, Long R, Hoggard L, Burford T, Hill L. Sex differences in the impact of racial discrimination on mental health among Black Americans. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(11):1–14. doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1098-9.
  • Seaton E, Caldwell C, Sellers R, Jackson J. The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Dev Psychol. 2008;44(5):1288–1297. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0012747
  • Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, Cleveland MJ, Wills TA, Brody G. Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2004;86(4):517–529. 10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.517
  • Paradies Y. A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35(4):888–901. doi:http://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyl056.
  • Seaton EK, Tyson K. The intersection of race and gender among Black American adolescents. Child Dev. 2019;90(1):62–70. 10.1111/cdev.13093
  • Wingfield AH. The modern mammy and the angry black man: African American professionals’ experiences with gendered racism in the workplace. Race Gender Class 2007;14(2):196–212. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41675204
  • Lewis JA, Williams MG, Peppers EJ, Gadson CA. Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among Black women. J Couns Psychol. 2017;64(5):475–486. http://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000231
  • Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, et al. Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One. 2015;10(9):e0138511. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138511.
  • Brody G, Chen Y-F, Murry V, et al . Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Dev. 2006;77(5):1170–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x
  • Brodish AB, Cogburn CD, Fuller-Rowell TE, Peck S, Malanchuk O, Eccles JS. Perceived racial discrimination as a predictor of health behaviors: The moderating role of gender. Race Soc Probl. 2011;3(3):160–169. doi:10.1007/s12552-011-9050-6.
  • Assari S, Moazen-Zadeh E, Caldwell C, Zimmerman M. Racial discrimination during adolescence predicts mental health deterioration in adulthood: Gender differences among Blacks. Front Public Health. 2017;5:104–110. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2017.00104.
  • Seaton EK, Caldwell CH, Sellers RM, Jackson JS. An intersectional approach for understanding perceived discrimination and psychological wellbeing among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Dev Psychol. 2010;46(5):1372–1379. doi:10.1037/a0019869.
  • Keum BTH, Cano MÁ. Online racism, psychological distress, and alcohol use among racial minority women and men: A multi-group mediation analysis. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2021;91(4):524–530. 10.1037/ort0000553
  • Cano MA, Schwartz SJ, MacKinnon DP, et al. Exposure to ethnic discrimination in social media and symptoms of anxiety and depression among Hispanic emerging adults: Examining the moderating role of gender. J Clin Psychol. 2021;77(3):571–586. 10.1002/jclp.23050
  • Beiter R, Nash R, McCrady M, et al. The prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students. J Affect Disord. 2015;173:90–96. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.054.
  • Del Toro J, Hughes D. Trajectories of discrimination across the college years: Associations with academic, psychological, and physical adjustment outcomes. J Youth Adolesc. 2020;49(4):772–789. doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01147-3.
  • Pinedo A, Durkee MI, Diemer MA, Hope EC. Disentangling longitudinal trajectories of racial discrimination and critical action among Black and Latinx college students: What role do peers play? Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2021;27(3):546–557. doi:10.1037/cdp0000434.
  • Tynes BM, Rose CA, Williams DR. The development and validation of the Online Victimization Scale for adolescents. Cyberpsychology 2010;4(2):2. Available at: https://cyberpsychology.eu/article/view/4237/3282
  • Kroenke K, Strine TW, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Berry JT, Mokdad AH. The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population. J Affect Disord. 2009;114(1-3):163–173. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.026
  • Mueller A, Claes L, Mitchell JE, Faber RJ, Fischer J, de Zwaan M. Does compulsive buying differ between male and female students? Pers Individ Diff. 2011;50(8):1309–1312. doi:http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.026.
  • Alpizar D, Plunkett SW, Whaling K. Reliability and validity of the 8-Item Patient Health Questionnaire for measuring depressive symptoms of Latinx emerging adults. J Lat Psychol. 2018;6(2):115–130. doi:10.1037/lat0000087.
  • Angulo M, Rooks BT, Gill MKay, et al. Psychometrics of the screen for adult anxiety related disorders (SCAARED)—a new scale for the assessment of DSM-5 anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2017;253:84–90. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.034.
  • Asher M, Asnaani A, Aderka IM. Gender differences in social anxiety disorder: A review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017;56:1–12. 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.05.004
  • Keum BT, Miller MJ. Measurement invariance of the Perceived Online Racism Scale across age and gender. Cyberpsychology 2018;12(3):3. doi:10.5817/CP2018-3-3.
  • Alkis Y, Kadirhan Z, Sat M. Development and validation of social anxiety scale for social media users. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;72(7):296–303. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.011.
  • King KR. Why is discrimination stressful? The mediating role of cognitive appraisal. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2005;11(3):202–212. 10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.202
  • Williams MG, Lewis JA. Gendered racial microaggressions and depressive symptoms among Black women: A moderated mediation model. Psychol Women Q. 2019;43(3):368–380. doi:10.1177/0361684319832511.
  • Lewis JA, Mendenhall R, Harwood SA, Huntt MB. Coping with gendered racial microaggressions among Black women college students. J Afr Am St. 2013;17(1):51–73. doi:10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0.
  • Woods-Giscombé CL. Superwoman schema: African American women’s views on stress, strength, and health. Qual Health Res. 2010;20(5):668–683. doi:10.1177/1049732310361892.
  • Donovan RA, West LM. Stress and mental health: Moderating role of the strong Black woman stereotype. J Black Psychol. 2015;41(4):384–396. doi:10.1177/0095798417732414.
  • Egede LE, Walker RJ. Structural racism, social risk factors, and Covid-19 — A dangerous convergence for Black Americans. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(12):e77. doi:10.1056/NEJMp2023616.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.