Black Women at War: A Comprehensive Framework for Research on the Strong Black Woman

References

• Abrams, J., Hill, A., & Maxwell, M. (2019). Underneath the mask of the strong Black woman schema: Disentangling influences of strength and self-silencing on depressive symptoms among U.S. Black women. Sex Roles, 80(9–10), 517–526. doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0956-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrams, J., Maxwell, M., Pope, M., & Belgrave, F. (2014). Carrying the world with the grace of a lady and the grit of a warrior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(4), 503–518. doi:10.1177/0361684314541418
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Accapadi, M. (2007). When white women cry: How white women’s tears oppress women of color. College Student Affairs Journal, 26(2), 208–215. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ899418.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, J., Holland, E., Heldreth, C., & Johnson, S. (2018). Revisiting the Jezebel stereotype: The impact of target race on sexual objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(4), 461–476. doi:10.1177/0361684318791543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anyiwo, N., Ward, L., Fletcher, K., & Rowley, S. (2018). Black adolescents’ television usage and endorsement of mainstream gender roles and the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(4), 371–397. doi:10.1177/0095798418771818
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2005). Keeping up appearances, getting fed up: The embodiment of strength among African American women. Meridians, 5(2), 104–123. doi:10.1353/mer.2005.0003
   Google Scholar
• Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2007). “You have to show strength”: An exploration of gender, race, and depression. Gender and Society, 21(1), 28–51. doi:10.1177/0891243206294108
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2009). Behind the mask of the strong Black woman: Voice and the embodiment of a costly performance. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Black, A., & Woods-Giscombé, C. (2012). Applying the stress and “strength” hypothesis to Black women’s breast cancer screening delays. Stress and Health, 28(5), 389–396. doi:10.1002/smi.2464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronder, E., Speight, S., Witherspoon, K., & Thomas, A. (2014). John Henryism, depression, and perceived social support in Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(2), 115–137. doi:10.1177/0095798412474466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, A. (2018, January 9). Least desirable? How racial discrimination plays out in online dating. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2018/01/09/575352051/least-desirable-how-racial-discrimination-plays-out-in-online-dating
   Google Scholar
• Brown, D., & Keith, V. (2003). In and out of our right minds: The mental health of African American women. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, D. L., Blackmon, S. K., Rosnick, C. B., Griffin-Fennell, F. D., & White-Johnson, R. L. (2017). Initial development of a gendered-racial socialization scale for African American college women. Sex Roles, 77(3–4), 178–193. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0707-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant-Davis, T. (2013). Sister friends: A reflection and analysis of the therapeutic role of sisterhood in African American women’s lives. Women and Therapy, 36(1–2), 110–120. doi:10.1080/02703149.2012.720906
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, L., & Rossi, A. (2019). Embodying strength: The origin, representations, and socialization of the strong Black woman ideal and its effect on Black women’s mental health. Women and Therapy, 42(3–4), 289–300. doi:10.1080/02703149.2019.1622911
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Collegiate Mental Health (2014, January). 2013 annual report (Publication No. STA 14–43). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED572759.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chang, D., & Yoon, P. (2011). Ethnic minority clients’ perceptions of the significance of race in cross-racial therapy relationships. Psychotherapy Research, 21(5), 567–582. doi:10.1080/10503307.2011.592549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatelain, M., & Asoka, K. (2015). Women and Black lives matter. Dissent, 62(3), 54–61. doi:10.1353/dss.2015.0059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Childs, F., & Palmer, N. (2012). Going off: A guide for Black women who’ve just about had enough. New York, NY: St. Martin’s.
   Google Scholar
• CNN (2016, November). Election 2016 exit polls. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/election/2016/results/exit-polls
   Google Scholar
• Coles, S. M., & Pasek, J. (2020). Intersectional invisibility revisited: How group prototypes lead to the erasure and exclusion of Black women. Translational Issues in Psychological Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/tps0000256.
   Google Scholar
• Collier-Thomas, B. (2001). Sisters in the struggle: African American women in the civil rights–Black power movement. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, P. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Combahee River Collective (1977). The Combahee River Collective statement: Black feminist organizing in the seventies and eighties. Albany, NY: Kitchen Table/Women of Color Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, B. (2018). Eloquent rage: A Black feminist discovers her superpower. New York, NY: St. Martin’s.
   Google Scholar
• Corbin, N., Smith, W., & Garcia, J. (2018). Trapped between justified anger and being the strong Black woman: Black college women coping with racial battle fatigue at historically and predominantly white institutions, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 31(7), 626–643, doi:10.1080/09518398.2018.1468045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, S. (2015). The “strong Black woman collective”: A developing theoretical framework for understanding collective communication practices of Black women. Women’s Studies in Communication, 38(1), 20–35. doi:10.1080/07491409.2014.953714
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, S. (2018a). The aftermath of #BlackGirlsRock vs. #WhiteGirlsRock: Considering the disrespectability of a Black woman counterpublic. Women’s Studies in Communication, 41(3), 269–290. doi:10.1080/07491409.2018.1505678
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, S. (2018b). Taking back the power: An analysis of Black women’s communicative resistance. Review of Communication, 18(4), 301–318. doi:10.1080/15358593.2018.1461234
   Google Scholar
• Davis, S., & Afifi, T. (2019). The strong Black woman collective theory: Determining the prosocial functions of strength regulation in groups of Black women friends. Journal of Communication, 69(1), 1–25. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy065
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan, R. (2011). Tough or tender: (Dis)similarities in white college students’ perceptions of Black and white women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 458–468. doi:10.1177/0361684311406874
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan, R., & West, L. (2015). Stress and mental health moderating role of the strong Black woman stereotype. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(4), 384–396. doi:10.1177/0095798414543014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edmondson-Bell, E., & Nkomo, S. (1998). Armoring: Learning to withstand racial oppression. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29(2), 285–295. Retrieved from https://www-jstor-org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/stable/41603565 doi:10.3138/jcfs.29.2.285
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, R., Blake, J., & Gonzalez, T. (2017). Girlhood interrupted: The erasure of Black girls’ childhood. Retrieved from https://www.blendedandblack.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/girlhood-interrupted.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Galinsky, A., Hugenberg, K., Groom, C., & Bodenhausen, G. (2003). The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: Implications for social identity. In J. Polzer (Ed.), Identity Issues in Groups (pp. 221–256). Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Group.
   Google Scholar
• Geronimus, A., Bound, J., Waidmann, T., Colen, C., & Steffick, D. (2001). Inequality in life expectancy, functional status, and active life expectancy across selected Black and white populations in the United States. Demography, 38(2), 227–251. doi:10.1353/dem.2001.0015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, B. (1990). What has gone before: The legacy of racism and sexism in the lives of Black mothers and daughters. Women and Therapy, 9(1–2), 207–230. doi:10.1300/J015v09n01_12
   Google Scholar
• Hall, J., Everett, J., & Hamilton-Mason, J. (2012). Black women talk about workplace stress and how they cope. Journal of Black Studies, 43(2), 207–226. doi:10.1177/0021934711413272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrington, E., Crowther, J., & Shipherd, J. (2010). Trauma, binge eating, and the “strong Black woman.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(4), 469–479. doi:10.1037/a0019174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris-Perry, M. (2011). Sister citizen: Shame, stereotypes, and Black women in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harwood, S., Huntt, M., Mendenhall, R., & Lewis, J. (2012). Racial microaggressions in the residence halls: Experiences of students of color at a predominantly white university. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5(3), 159–173. doi:10.1037/a0028956
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooks, B. (1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking Black. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hooks, B. (1990). Yearning: Race, gender, and cultural politics. Boston, MA: South End Press.
   Google Scholar
• Houston, M. (2000). Multiple perspectives: African American women conceive their talk. Women and Language, 23(1), 11–17.
   Google Scholar
• Houston, M., & Scott, K. (2006). Negotiating boundaries, crossing borders: The language of Black women’s intercultural encounters. In B. Dow & J. Wood (Eds.), Sage handbook of gender and communication (pp. 397–414). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Hudson, B. (2001). African American female speech communities: Varieties of talk. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, P., & Heuman, A. (2006). The communication of solidarity in friendships among African American women. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 7(1), 33–41. doi:10.1080/17459430600964869
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, M., Wise, L., Jipguep, M., Cozier, Y., & Rosenberg, L. (2007). Neighborhood racial composition and perceptions of racial discrimination: Evidence from the Black Women’s Health Study. Social Psychology Quarterly, 70(3), 272–289. doi:10.1177/019027250707000306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S. (2016). (Re)imagining intersectional democracy from Black feminism to hashtag activism. Women’s Studies in Communication, 39(4), 375–379. doi:10.1080/07491409.2016.1226654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S., & Banaszczyk, S. (2016). Digital standpoints: Debating gendered violence and racial exclusions in the feminist counterpublic. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 40(4), 391–407. doi:10.1177/0196859916667731
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M., & Day, S. (2018). An exploration of Black women’s gendered racial identity using a multidimensional and intersectional approach. Sex Roles, 79(1–2), 1–15. doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0854-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M., Harris, K., & Reynolds, A. (2020). In their own words: The meaning of the strong Black woman schema among Black U.S. college women. Sex Roles. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11199-020-01170-w
   Google Scholar
• Jones, M., & Pritchett-Johnson, B. (2018). “Invincible Black women”: Group therapy for Black college women. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 43(4), 349–375. doi:10.1080/01933922.2018.1484536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M., & Sam, T. (2018). Cultural connections: An ethnocultural counseling intervention for Black women in college. Journal of College Counseling, 21(1), 73–86. doi:10.1002/jocc.12088
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. C., & Shorter-Gooden, K. (2009). Shifting: The double lives of Black women in America. Harper Collins.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, J., Williams, M., Peppers, E., & Gadson, C. (2017). Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 475–486. doi:10.1037/cou0000231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liao, K. Y. H., Wei, M., & Yin, M. (2020). The misunderstood schema of the strong Black woman: Exploring its mental health consequences and coping responses among African American women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(1), 84–104. doi:10.1177/0361684319883198
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorde, A. (1981, June). The uses of anger: Women responding to racism. Keynote presentation at the National Women’s Studies Association conference, Storrs, CT.
   Google Scholar
• Mays, V., Caldwell, C., & Jackson, J. (1996). Mental health symptoms and service utilization patterns of help-seeking among African American women. In H. Neighbors & J. Jackson (Eds.), Mental health in Black America (pp. 161–176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• McLane-Davison, D., Quinn, C., Hardy, K., & Smith, R. (2018). The power of sum: An accountability sistah circle. Journal of Social Work Education, 54(1), 18–32. doi:10.1080/10437797.2017.1336139
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, N. (2000). Innovative practice: Sister-friends: A counseling group for Black female undergraduates. Journal of College Counseling, 3(1), 73–77. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2000.tb00165.x
   Google Scholar
• Moraga, C., & Anzaldúa, G. (1981). This bridge called my back: Writings by radical women of color. New York, NY: Kitchen Table/Women of Color Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, D. (1965). The Negro family: The case for national action. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor.
   Google Scholar
• Neighbors, H. W., Caldwell, C., Williams, D. R., Nesse, R., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., … Jackson, J. S. (2007). Race, ethnicity, and the use of services for mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(4), 485–494. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.4.485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, T., Cardemil, E., & Adeoye, C. (2016). Rethinking strength: Black women’s perceptions of the “strong Black woman” role. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(4), 551–563. doi:10.1177/0361684316646716
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, T., Shahid, N. N., & Cardemil, E. V. (2020). Do I really need to go and see somebody? Black women’s perceptions of help-seeking for depression. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(4), 263–286. doi:10.1177/0095798420931644
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niles Goins, M. (2011). Playing with dialectics: Black female friendship groups as a homeplace. Communication Studies, 62(5), 531–546. doi:10.1080/10510974.2011.584934
   Google Scholar
• Norris, C., & Mitchell, F. (2014). Exploring the stress-support-distress process among Black women. Journal of Black Studies, 45(1), 3–18. doi:10.1177/0021934713517898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omi, M., & Winant, H. (2015). Racial formation in the United States (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, S., Esquibel, E., & Rich, M. (2013). “I’m still here:” Black female undergraduates’ self-definition narratives. World Journal of Education, 3(5), 57–71. doi:10.5430/wje.v3n5p57
   Google Scholar
• Romero, R. (2000). The icon of the strong Black woman: The paradox of strength. In L. Jackson & B. Greene (Eds.), Psychotherapy with African American women: Innovations in psychodynamic perspective and practice (pp. 225–238). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, L., & Lobel, M. (2016). Stereotypes of Black American women related to sexuality and motherhood. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 414–427. doi:10.1177/0361684315627459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (1995). “When I’m with my girls”: Identity and ideology in Black women’s talk about language and cultural borders (Doctoral dissertation), University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign, Urbana–Champaign, IL.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2000). Crossing cultural borders: “Girl” and “look” as markers of identity in Black women’s language use. Discourse and Society, 11(2), 237–248. doi:10.1177/0957926500011002005
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2002). Conceiving the language of Black women’s everyday talk. In M. Houston & O. Davis (Eds.), Centering ourselves: African American feminist and womanist studies of discourse (pp. 53–76). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2013). Communication strategies across cultural borders: Dispelling stereotypes, performing competence, and redefining Black womanhood. Women's Studies in Communication, 36(3), 321–329. doi:10.1080/07491409.2013.831005
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2016). Black feminist reflections on activism: Repurposing strength for self-care, sustainability, and survival. Departures in Critical Qualitative Research, 5(3), 126–132. doi:10.1525/dcqr.2016.5.3.126
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2017a). The language of strong Black womanhood: Myths, models, messages, and a new mandate for self-care. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, K. (2017b). Young, shifting, and Black: Leaving the language of home and back again—A cautionary tale of crossing race and gender borders. Qualitative Inquiry, 23(2), 119–129. doi:10.1177/1077800416655824
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Settles, I., Jones, M., Buchanan, N., & Dotson, K. (2020). Epistemic exclusion: Scholarly devaluation that marginalizes faculty of color. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/dhe0000174
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shorter-Gooden, K. (2004). Multiple resistance strategies: How African American women cope with racism and sexism. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(3), 406–425. doi:10.1177/0095798404266050
   Google Scholar
• Shorter-Gooden, K., & Washington, N. (1996). Young, Black, and female: The challenge of weaving an identity. Journal of Adolescence, 19(5), 465–475. doi:10.1006/jado.1996.0044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton, A., Jerald, M., Ward, L., & Avery, L. (2017). Social media contributions to strong Black woman ideal endorsement and Black women’s mental health. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 41(4), 465–478. doi:10.1177/0361684317732330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. (1995). Lessons in living. Essence, 26(8), 57–58.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, A., Hoxha, D., &, Hacker, J. (2013). Contextual influences on gendered racial identity development of African American young women. Journal of Black Psychology, 39(1), 88–101. doi:10.1177/0095798412454679
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, A., & King, C. (2007). Gendered racial socialization of African American mothers and daughters. Family Journal, 15(2), 137–142. doi:10.1177/1066480706297853
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, G., & Hollenshead, C. (2001). Resisting from the margins: The coping strategies of Black women and other women of color faculty members at a research university. Journal of Negro Education, 70(3), 166–175. doi:10.2307/3211208
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, V., & Alexander, H. (2006). Therapists’ race and African American clients’ reactions to therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 43(1), 99–110. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.43.1.99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker-Barnes, C. (2014). Too heavy a yoke: Black women and the burden of strength. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock.
   Google Scholar
• Ward, E., Clark, L., & Heidrich, S. (2009). African American women’s beliefs about mental illness, stigma, and preferred coping behaviors. Research in Nursing and Health, 32(5), 480–492. doi:10.1002/nur.20344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren-Findlow, J. (2006). Weathering: Stress and heart disease in African American women living in Chicago. Qualitative Health Research, 16(2), 221–237. doi:10.1177/1049732305278651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, N., & Hunter, C. (2015). “I had to be strong”: Tensions in the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 42(5), 1–29. doi:10.1177/0095798415597093
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson-Singleton, N. (2017). Strong Black woman schema and psychological distress: The mediating role of perceived emotional support. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(8), 778–788. doi:10.1177/0095798417732414
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, C. (1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 32(3), 458–466. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.32.3.458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, L., Donovan, R., & Daniel, A. (2016). The price of strength: Black college women’s perspectives on the strong Black woman stereotype. Women and Therapy, 39(3–4), 390–412. doi:10.1080/02703149.2016.1116871
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, S. (2016). #SayHerName: Using digital activism to document violence against Black women. Feminist Media Studies, 16(5), 922–925. doi:10.1080/14680777.2016.1213574
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C. (2010). Superwoman schema: African American women’s views on stress, strength, and health. Qualitative Health Research, 20(5), 668–683. doi:10.1177/1049732310361892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C., Allen, A., Black, A., Steed, T., Li, Y., & Lackey, C. (2019). The Giscombe superwoman schema questionnaire: Psychometric properties and associations with mental health and health behaviors in African American women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(8), 672–681. doi:10.1080/01612840.2019.1584654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar