247
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Meningococcal disease: treatment and prevention

Pages 624-634 | Published online: 08 Jul 2009

References

  • Vieusseaux M. Memoire sur le maladie qui a regne a Geneve au printemps de 1805. J Med Chir Pharmacol 1806; 11: 163–82.
  • Danielson L Mann E. The history of a singular and very mortal disease, which lately made its appearance in Medfield. Medical and Agricultural Register 1806; 1: 65.
  • Poolman JT, van der Ley PA, Tommassen J. surface structures and secreted products of meningococci. In: Cartwright K, ed. Meningococcal disease. Chichester: Wiley; 1995: 21–34.
  • Achtman M. Global epidemiology of meningococcal disease In: Cartwright K, ed. Meningococcal disease. Chichester: Wiley; 1995: 159–75.
  • Jones D. Epidemiology of meningococcal disease in Europe and USA. In: Cartwright K, ed. Meningococcal disease. Chichester: Wiley; 1995: 14–57.
  • Rosenstein NE, Perkins BA, Stephens DS, Lefkowitz L, Cartter ML, Danila R, et al. The changing epidemiology of meningococcal disease in the United States, 1992-1996. J Infect Dis 1999; 180: 1894–901.
  • Taha MK, Achtman M, Alonso JM, Greenwood B, Ramsay M, Fox A, et al. Serogroup W135 meningococcal disease in Hajj pilgrims. Lancet 2000; 356: 2159.
  • Caugant DA, Bovre K, Gansteid P, Bryn K, Holten B, Hoiby EA, et al. Multilocus genotypes determined by enzyme electrophoresis of Neisseria meningitidis isolated from patients with systemic disease and from healthy carriers. J Gen Microbiol 1986; 132: 641–52.
  • Caugant DA. Population genetics and molecular epidemiology of Neisseria meningitidis. APMIS 1998; 106: 505–25.
  • Sullivan TD, LaScolea U. Neisseria meningitidis Bacteraemia in children: quantitation of bacteraemia and spontaneous clinical recovery without antibiotic therapy. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 63–7.
  • Zwahlen A, Waldvogel FA. Magnitude of bacteraemia and complement activation during Neisseria meningitidis infection: study of two co-primary cases with different clinical presentations. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1984; 3: 439–41.
  • Bush FW, Bailey ER. The treatment of meningococcal infections with especial reference to the Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1944; 20: 619–31.
  • Greenwood BM, Whittle H. Antigen-negative meningitis due to group A Neisseria meningitidis. J Infect Dis 1974; 129: 201–4.
  • Harrison LH, Pass MA, Mendelsohn AB, Egri M, Rosenstein NE, Bustamante A, et al. Invasive meningococcal disease in adolescents and young adults. JAMA 2001; 286: 694–9.
  • Brandtzaeg P, Mollnes TE, Kierulf P. Complement activation and endotoxin levels in systemic meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 1989; 160: 58–65.
  • Hazelzet JA, de Groot R, van Mierlo G, Joosten KF, van der Voort Eerenberg A et al. Complement activation in relation to capillary leakage in children with septic shock and purpura. Infect Immun 1998; 66: 5350–6.
  • Brandtzaeg P, Ovstebo R, Kierulf P. Compartmentalisation of lipopolysaccharide production correlates with clinical presentation of meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 650–2.
  • Van Deuren M, Brandtzaeg P. Parents' and GPs' key role in diagnosis of meningococcal septicaemia. Lancet 2000; 356: 954–5.
  • Lambert HP, Wall RA. In: Lambert HP, ed. Infections of the Central Nervous System: Meningococcal meningitis: treat-ment: Philadelphia: BC Decker Inc; 1991: 92–8.
  • Jubb AA. Chemotherapy and serotherapy in cerebrospinal (meningococcal) meningitis. An analysis of 3206 case reports. BMJ 1943; 1: 501–4.
  • Millar JW, Siess EE, Feldman HA Silverman C, Frank P. In vivo and in vitro resistance to sulfadiazine in strains of Neisseria meningitidis. JAMA 1963; 186: 139–41.
  • Wehrle PF; madnes AW, Leedom JM. The critically ill child: management of acute bacterial meningitis. Pediatrics 1969; 44: 991–8.
  • Campos J. Discriminative criteria for Neisseria meningitidis isolates that are moderately susceptible to penicillin and ampicillin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 1028–31.
  • Meads M Ory EM, Wilcox C, Finland M. Penicillin sensitivity of strains of six common pathogens and of Hemophilus hemolyticus. J Lab Clin Med 1945; 30: 725–30.
  • contoyiannis P, Adamopoulos D. Penicillin-resistant Neisseria meningitidis. Lancet 1974; 1: 462
  • Saez-Neito JA, Fontanals D, Garcia de Jalon J, Martinez de Artola V, Pera P, Morera MA, et al. Isolation of Neisseria meningitidis strains with increase of penicillin minimal inhibitory concentrations. Epidemiol Infect 1987; 99: 463–9.
  • Saez-Nieto JA, Vazquez JA, Marcos C. Meningococci moderately resistant to penicillin. Lancet 1990; 2: 54
  • Saez-Nieto JA, Lujan R, Baron S, Campos J, Vinas M, Fuste C, et al. Epidemiology and molecular basis of penicillin-resistant Neisseria meningitidis in Spain: a 5-year history (1985-1989). Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14: 391 102.
  • Richter SS, Gordon KA, Rhomberg PR, Pfaller MA, Jones RN. Neisseria meningitidis with decreased susceptibility to penicillin: Report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, North America, 1998-99. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 41: 83–8.
  • Guibourdenche M, Lambert T, Courvalin P, Riou JY. Epidemiological survey of Neisseria meningitidis to penicillin G in France. Pathol Biol (Paris) 1997; 45: 729–36.
  • Sutcliffe EM, Jones DM, El-Sheikh S, Pervical A, Penicillin-insensitive meningococci in the UK. Lancet 1988; 1: 657–8.
  • Kaczmarski EB. Meningococcal disease in England and Wales: 1995. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev 1997; 4: 55–9.
  • Uriz S, Pineda V, Grau M, Nava JM, Bella F, Morera MA, et al. Neisseria meningitidis with reduced sensitivity to penicillin: observations in 10 children. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 171–4.
  • Perez-Trallero E, Aldamiz-Echeverria L, Perez-Yarza EG. Meningococci with increased resistance to penicillin. Lancet 1990; 1: 1096.
  • Cubelas C, Garcia J, Martinez JR, Otin CL. Clinical data in children with meningococcal meningitis in a Spanish Hospital. Acta Paediatr 1997; 86: 26–9.
  • Bardi L Badolati A, Corso A, Rossi M. Fracaso del tratamiento con penicilina en un caso de meningitis por Neisseria meningitidis Medichta (B Aires) 1994; 54: 427–30.
  • Casado-Flores J, Osona B, Domingo P, Barquet N. Meningococcal meningitis during penicillin therapy for meningoccaemia. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 1479.
  • Dillon JR, Panze M, Yeung KM. Spread of penicillinase-producing and transfer plasmids from the gonococcus to Neisseria meningitidis Lancet 1983; 1: 779–81.
  • Botha P. Penicillin-resistant Neisseria meningitidis in Southern Africa. Lancet 1988; 2: 54.
  • Eontanals D, Pineda V, Pons, Roja J. Penicillin-resistant beta-lactamase producing Neisseria meningitidis in Spain Fur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1989; 8: 90–1.
  • Vazquez J, Enriquez A, de la Fuente L, Berron S, Baquero M. Isolation of a strain of beta-lactamase-producing Neisseria meningitidis in Spain Eur J. Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996; 15: 181–2.
  • Perez C, Muncharaz M, Serrano L, EsteIles T, Cardona C, Talayero J. Aislamiento de dos cepas de Neisseria meningitidis serogrupo C productoras de betalactamasa. An Esp Pediatr 1995; 42: 453–5.
  • Quagliarello VJ, Scheld WM. Treatment of bacterial meningitis N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 708–16.
  • Lebel MH, McCracken GH. Delayed cerebrospinal fluid sterilisation and adverse outcome of bacterial meningitis in infants and children Pediatrics 1989; 83: 161–7.
  • Abadi FJR, Yakabu DE, Pennington TH. Antimicrobial susceptibility of penicillin-sensitive and penicillin-resistant meningococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995; 35: 687–90.
  • Tauber MG, Sande MA. General principles of therapy of pyogenic meningitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1990; 4: 661–76.
  • Schmidt T, Tauber MG. Pharmacodynamics of antibiotics in the therapy of meningitis: infection model observations. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 31 Suppl D: 61–70.
  • Hieber JP, Nelson JD. A pharmacologic evaluation of penicillin in children with purulent meningitis. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 410–3.
  • Latif R, Dajani AS. Ceftriaxone diffusion into cerebrospinal fluid of children with meningitis Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 23: 46–8.
  • Dankner WM, Connor JD, Sawyer M, Straube R, Spector SA. Treatment of bacterial meningitis with once daily ceftriaxone therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 1988; 21: 637–45.
  • Chadwick EG, Connor EM, Shulman ST, Yogev R. Efficacy of ceftriaxone in treatment of serious childhood infections. J Paediatr 1983; 103: 141–5.
  • Schliamser SE, Cars O, Norrby SR. Neurotoxicity of beta-lactam antibiotics: predisposing factors and pathogenesis J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 27: 405–25.
  • Department of Health and Social Security. meningococcal infection: meningitis and septicaemia. London: DHSS; 1988: PL/CMO (88)2.
  • Patel MS, Collignon PJ, Watson CR, Condon RJ, Doherty RR, Merianos A, et al. New guidelines for management and prevention of meningococcal disease in Australia. Med J Aust 1997; 166: 598–601.
  • Wall RA, Hassan-King M, Thomas H, Greenwood BM. Meningococcal bacteraemia in febrile contacts of patients with meningococcal disease. Lancet 1986; 2: 624.
  • Goldacre MI Acute bacterial meningitis in childhood: aspects of prehospital care in 687 cases. Arch Dis Child 1977; 52: 501–9.
  • Barquet N, Domingo P Cayla JA, Gonzalez J, Rodrigo C, Fernandez-Viladrichg et al. meningococcal disease in a large urban population (Barcelona, 1987–1992). Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 2329–40.
  • Radetsky M. Duration of symptoms and outcome in bacterial meningitis: an analysis of causation and the implications of a delay in diagnosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 11: 694–8.
  • Strang JR, Pugh EJ. Meningococcal infections: reducing the case fatality rate by giving penicillin before admission to hospital. BMJ 1992; 305: 141–3.
  • Cartwright K, Reilly S, White D, Stuart J. Early treatment with parenteral penicillin in meningococcal disease. BMJ 1992; 305: 143–7.
  • Gossain S, Constantine CE, Webberley JM. Early parent-eral penicillin in meningococcal disease. BMJ 1992; 305: 523–4.
  • Cartwright K, Strang J, Gossain S, Begg N. Early treatment of meningococcal disease. BMJ 1992; 305: 774.
  • Sorensen HT, Nielsen GL, Schonheyder HC, Steffensen FH, Hansen I, Sabroe S, et al. Outcome of pre-hospital treatment of meningococcal disease. J Clin Epidemiol 1998; 51: 717–21.
  • Nau R. Eiffert H. Modulation of release of proinflammatory bacterial compounds by antibacterials: Potential impact on course of inflammation and outcome in sepsis and meningitis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15: 95–110.
  • Prins JM, Lauw FN, Derkx BHF. Endotoxin release and cytokine production in acute and chronic meningococcaemia. Clin Exp Immunol 1998; 114: 215–9.
  • Anderson BM, Solberg a The Endotoxin-liberating effect of antibiotics on meningococci in vitro. Acta Pathol Micro-biol Scand Sect B 1980; 88: 231–6.
  • Mellado MC, Rodriguez-Contreras R, Mariscal A, Luna JD, Rodriguez MD, Galvez-Vargas R. Effect of penicillin and chloramphenicol on the growth and endotoxin release by N. meningitidis. Epidemiol Infect 1991; 106: 283–8.
  • Prins JM, Speelman P, Kuijper EJ, Dankert J, van Deventer SJH. No increase in endotoxin release during antibiotic killing of meningococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 13–8.
  • Lehner PJ, Davies KA, Walport MJ, Cope AP, Wurzner R, Orren A, et al. Meningococcal septicaemia in a C6-deficient patient and effects of plasma transfusion on lipopolysaccharide release. Lancet 1992; 340: 1379–81.
  • Brandtzaeg P Kierulf P Gaustad P, Skulberg A, Bruun JN, Halvorsen S, et al. Plasma endotoxin as a predictor of multiple organ failure and death in systemic meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 1989; 159: 195–20.
  • Uronen H, Williams AJ, Dixon G, Andersen SR, Van der Ley P, Van Deuren M. et al. Gram-negative bacteria induce proinflammatory cytokine production by monocytes in the absence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Clin Exp Immunol 2000; 122: 312–5.
  • Ingalls RR, Lien E, Golenbock DT. Membrane-associated proteins of a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-deficient mutant of Neisseria meningitidis activate the inflammatory response through toll-like receptor 2. Infect Immun 2001; 69: 2230–6.
  • Pridmore AC, Wyllie DH, Abdillahi A, Steeghs L, van der Ley P, Dower SK, et al. A lipopolysaccharide-deficient mutant of Neisseria meningitidis elicits attenuated cytokine release by human macrophages and signal via toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 but not via TLR4/MD2. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 89–96.
  • Sprong T, Stikkelbroeck N, van der Ley P, Steeghs L, van Alphen L, Klein N, et al. Contributions of Neisseria meningitidis LPS and non-LPS to proinflammatory cytokine response. J Leukoc Biol 2001; 70: 283–8.
  • Jacobs RF, His S, Wilson B, Benjamin D, Smith AL, Morrow R. Apparent meningococcaemia: Clinical features of disease due to Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. Pediatrics 1983; 72: 469–72.
  • Sjursen H, Hofstad T, Fuglesang P. Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome caused by Haemophilus influenzae in an adult. Infection 1981; 9: 300–1.
  • Bisno AL, Freeman JC. The syndrome of asplenia, pneumococcal sepsis, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Ann Intern Med 1970; 72: 389–93.
  • Murph RC, Matulis WS, Hernandez JE. Rapidly fatal pneumococcal sepsis in a healthy adult. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 375–6.
  • Brandtzaeg P, Gaustad P, Vanberg PJ, Medbo S, Ledaal P, Reigstad H. Clinical manifestations caused by group A streptococci. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 1990; 110: 2629–33.
  • Murray HW, Tuazon CU, Sheagren JN. Staphylococcal septicaemia and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Arch Intern Med 1977; 137: 844–7.
  • Leaker B, Miller R, Cohen S. Treatment of acute renal failure, symmetrical peripheral gangrene, and septicaemia with plasma exchange and epoprostenol. Lancet 1987; 1: 156.
  • Nadel S, Levin M, Habibi E. Treatment of meningococcal disease in childhood In: Cartwright K, ed, Meningococcal Disease. Chichester: Wiley; 1995: 207–43.
  • Pollard AJ, Britto J, Nadel S, de Munter C, Habibi P, Levin M. Emergency management of meningococcal disease. Arch Dis Child 1999; 80: 290–6.
  • Booy R, Habibi P, Nadel S, de Munter, Britto J, Morrison A, et al. Reduction of the case fatality rate from meningococcal disease associated with improved healthcare delivery. Arch Dis Child 2001; 85: 386–90.
  • Levin M Experimental treatments of meningococcal sepsis Curr Opin Infect Dis 1998; 11: 309–11.
  • Levin M, Quint PA, Goldstein B, Barton P, Bradley JS, Shemie SD, et al. Recombinant bactericidal /permeability-increasing protein (rBP121) as adjunctive treatment for children with severe meningococcal sepsis: a randomised trial. Lancet 2000; 356: 961–7.
  • Zaloga GP. Sepsis-induced adrenal deficiency syndrome. Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 688–90.
  • Schein RMH, Sprung CL, Marcial E. Plasma cortisol levels in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 1990; 18: 259–63.
  • Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, Bollaert PE, Francois B, Korach JM, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002; 288: 862–71.
  • Migeon CJ, Kenny FM, Hung W, Voorhess ML, Lawrence B, Richards C. Study of adrenal function in children with meningitis. Pediatrics 1967; 40: 163–83.
  • Mcwhinney PHM, Patel A, Walker E, Adrenal failure in fulminant meningococcal septicaemia: a clinical reality. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 22: 755–6.
  • Riordan FM, Thomson APJ, Ratcliffe JM, Sills JA, Diver MI Hart CA. Admission cortisol and adrenocorticotrophic hormone levels in children with meningococcal disease: Evidence of adrenal insufficiency? Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 2257–61.
  • Joosten FM, De Kleijn ED, Westerterp M, De Hoog M, Eijck CV, Hop WCJ, et al. Endocrine and Metabolic responses in children with meningococcal sepsis: striking differences between survivors and nonsurvivors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 3746–53.
  • Van Woensel JBM, Biezeveld MH, Alders AMB, Eerenberg AJM, Endert E, Hack EC, et al. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels in relation to inflammatory response and disease severity in children with meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 2001; 184: 1532–7.
  • Haterill M, Tibby SM, Hilliard T, Turner C, Murdoch IA. Adrenal insufficiency in septic shock. Arch Dis Child 1999; 80: 51–5.
  • Wajchenberg B, Leme CE, Tambascia M. The adrenal response to exogenous adrenocorticotrophin in patients with infections due to Neisseria meningitidis. J Infect Dis 1978; 138: 387–91.
  • Kirsch EA, Barton P, Kitchen L Giroir BE. Pathophysiology, treatment and outcome of meningococcaemia: a review and recent experience. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996; 15: 967–79.
  • van Deuren M, Brandtzaeg P, van der Meer JWM. Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management. Clin Micro biol Rev 2000; 13: 144–66.
  • Leclerc F, Noizet O, Dorkenoo AE, Cremer R, Leteurtre S, Sadik A, Fourier C. Purpura fulminans. Reanimation 2002; 11: 222–30.
  • Sheagren J. Corticosteroids for the treatment of septic shock. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1991; 5: 875–84.
  • Lefering R, Neugebauer EAM. Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: A meta-analysis Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1294–303.
  • Schumer W. Steroids in the treatment of clinical septic shock. Ann Surg 1976; 184: 333–9.
  • Arditi M, Ables L, Yogev R. Cerebrospinal fluid endotoxin levels in children with H. influenzae meningitis before and after administration of intravenous ceftriaxone J Infect Dis 1989; 160: 1005–11.
  • Saez-Llorens X, McCracken G. Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory treatment of bacterial meningitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999; 13: 619–36.
  • McIntyre PB, Berkey CS, King SM, Schaad UB, Kelpi T, Kama GY, et al. Dexamethasone as adjunctive therapy in bacterial meningitis: A meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials since 1998. JAMA 1997; 278: 925–31.
  • Whittle HC, Greenwood BM. Meningococcal Antigen in diagnosis and treatment of Group A meningococcal infections. Am J Med 1975; 58: 823–8.
  • Feldman WE. Relation of concentrations of bacteria and bacterial antigen in cerebrospinal fluid to prognosis in patients with bacterial meningitis N Engl J Med 1977; 296: 433–5.
  • Mariani-Kurkdjian P, Doit C, Le Thomas I, Aujard Y, Bourrillon A, Bingen E. concentrations bacteriennes dans le liquide cephalo-rachidien au cours des meningites de l'enfant. Presse Med 1999; 28: 1227–30.
  • Megraud F, Elharrif Z, Saulnier M, Latrine J. Bacterial count in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Neisseria meningitidis: meningitis comparison with other bacterial meningitis. Med Trop (Mars) 1984; 44: 94–5.
  • Baraff LJ, Lee SI, Schriger DL. Outcomes of bacterial meningitis in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993; 12: 389–94.
  • Goldschneider I, Gotschlich EC, Artenstein MS, Human Immunity to the meningococcus. I. The role of humoral antibodies. J Exp Med 1969; 129: 1307–26.
  • Gotschlich EC, Liu TY, Artenenstein MS, Human immunity to the meningococcus III. Preparation and immunochemical properties of the serogroup A, serogroup B, and serogroup C meningococcal polysaccharides. J Exp Med 1969; 129: 1349–65
  • Gotschlich EC, Goldschneider I, Artenstein MS, Human immunity to the meningococcus IV. Immunogenicity of serogroup A and serogroup C polysaccharides in human volunteers. J Exp Med 1969; 129: 1367–84.
  • Griffiss JM, Apicella MA, Greenwood BM, Makela PH. Vaccines against encapsulated bacteria: a global agenda. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9: 176–88.
  • Gold R, Lepow ML, Goldschneider I, Draper TF, Gotschlich EC. Kinetics of antibody production to group A and group C meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines administered during the first six years of life; prospects for routine immunisation of infants and children. J Infect Dis 1979; 40: 690–7.
  • Peltola H, Makela PH, Kayhty H, Jousimies H, Herva E, Hallstrom K, et al. Clinical efficacy of meningococcus serogroup A capsular polysaccharide vaccine in children three months to five years of age. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 686–91.
  • Reingold AL, Broome CV, Hightower AW, Ajello GW, Bolan GA, Adamsbaum C, et al. Age-specific differences in duration of clinical protection after vaccination with meningococcal polysaccharide A vaccine. Lancet 1985; 2: 114–8.
  • Robbins JB, Towne DW, Gotschlich EC, Schneerson R. "Love's labours lost": failure to implement mass vaccination against group A meningococcal meningitis in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet 1997; 350: 880–2.
  • MacLennan J, Obaro S, Deeks J, Williams D, Pais L, Carlone G, et al. Immune response to revaccination with meningococcal A and C polysaccharides in Gambian children following repeated immunisation during early childhood. Vaccine 1999; 17: 3086–93.
  • Borrow R Joseph H, Andrews N, Acuna M, Longworth E, Martin S, et al. Reduced antibody response to revaccination with meningococcal serogroup A polysaccharide vaccine in adults. Vaccine 2001; 19: 1129–32.
  • Gold R, Artenstein MS. Meningococcal Infections 2. Field trial of serogroup C meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine in 1969-70. Bull World Health Organ 1971; 45: 279–82.
  • De Wals P, Dionne M, Douville-Fradet M, Boulianne N, Drapeau J, De Serres G. Impact of a mass immunization campaign against serogroup C meningococcus in the Province of Quebec, Canada. Bull World Health Organ 1996; 74: 407–11.
  • Tauney AE, Galvao, PA, Morais JS, Gotschlich EC, Feldman RA. Disease prevention by meningococcal serogroup C polysaccharide vaccine in preschool children. Pediatr Res 1974; 8: 429.
  • Gold R Lepow ML, Goldschneider I Draper TL, Gotschlich EC. Clinical evaluation of group A an C meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines in infants. J Clin Invest 1975; 56: 1536–47.
  • Granoff DM, Gupta RK, Belshe RB, Anderson EL. Induction of immunological refractoriness in adults by meningococcal C polysaccharide vaccination. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 870–4.
  • Galaid El, Cherubin CE, Marr JS, Schaefler S, Barone J, Lee W. Meningococcal disease in New York City 1973-1978; Recognition of Group Y and W135 as frequent pathogens. JAMA 1980; 244: 2167–71.
  • Robbins JB, Schneerson It Polysaccharide-Protein Conjugates: A new generation of vaccines. J Infect Dis 1990; 161: 821–32.
  • Maclennan J. Meningococcal group C conjugate vaccines. Arch Dis Child 2001; 84: 383–6.
  • Ramsay ME, Andrews N, Kaszmarski EB, Miller E. Efficacy of meningococcal serogroup C conjugate vaccine in teenagers and toddlers in England. Lancet 2001; 357: 195–6.
  • Maclennan J, Obaro S, Deeks J, Lake D, Elie C, Carlone G, et al. Immunological memory 5 Years after meningococcal A/C conjugate vaccination in infancy. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 97–104.
  • Borrow R, Fox AJ, Cartwright K, Begg NT, Jones DM. Salivary antibodies following parenteral immunisation of infants with a meningococcal serogroup A and C conjugated vaccine. Epidemiol Infect 1999; 123: 201–8.
  • Maiden MC, Stuart JM. Carriage of serogroup C meningococci 1 year after meningococcal C conjugate polysaccharide vaccination. Lancet 2002; 359: 1829–30.
  • Vogel U, Claus H, Frosch M. Rapid serogroup switching in Neisseria meningitidis. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 219–20.
  • Kertesz DA, Coulthart MB, Ryan JA, Johnson WM, Ashton FE. Serogroup B, electrophoretic type 15 Neisseria meningitidis in Canada. J Infect Dis 1998; 177: 1754–7.
  • Anderson EL, Bowers T, Mink MS, Kennedy DJ, Belshe RB, Harakeh H, et al. Safety and Immunogenicity of meningococcal A and C polyasaccharide conjugate vaccine in adults. Infect Immun 1994; 62: 3391–5.
  • Fairley CK, Begg N, Borrow R, Fox AJ, Jones DM, Cartwright K. conjugate meningococcal serogroup A and C vaccine: reactogenicity and immunogenicity in United King-dom infants. J Infect Dis 1996; 174: 1360–3.
  • Wyle FA, Artenstein MS, Brandt BL, Tramont EC, Kasper DL, Altieri PL, et al. Immunological response of man to Group B meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines. J Infect Dis 1972; 126: 514–22.
  • Jennings HJ, Lugowski C. Immunochemistry of group A, B and C meningococcal polysaccharide-tetanus toxoid conjugates. J Immunol 1981; 127: 1011–8.
  • Sierra GV, Campa HC, Varcacel NM, Garcia IL, Izquierdo PL, Sotolongo PF, et al. vaccine against group B Neisseria meningitidis: protection trial and mass vaccination results in Cuba. NIPH Ann 1991; 14: 195–207.
  • Bjune G, Hoiby EA, Gronnesby JK, Arnesen O, Fredriksen JH, Halstensen A, et al. Effect of outer membrane vasicle vaccine against group B meningococcal disease in Norway. Lancet 1991; 338: 1093–6.
  • Van der Ley P, Poohnan J. Construction of a multivalent meningococcal vaccine strain based on the class 1 outer membrane protein. Infect Immun 1992; 60: 3156–61.
  • Jeffs J, Munro R, Wedege E, Caugant DA. Sequence variation in the por A gene of a clone of Neisseria meningitidis during epidemic spread. Clin Diag Lab Immunol 2000; 7: 390–5.
  • Wall RA. Meningococcal vaccines. In: Kuckerman AJ, ed. Recent Developments in Prophylactic Immunization. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Pub; 1989: 20–46.
  • Jodar L, Feavers IM, Salisbury D, Granoff DM. Development of vaccines against meningococcal disease. Lancet 2002; 359: 1499–508.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.