Impact of Racial Attitudes on Consumers' Evaluations of Black Character Advertisements: Does Spokesperson Skin Color Make a Difference?

References

• Appiah , O. ( 2001 ). Ethnic identification on adolescents' evaluations of advertisements . Journal of Advertising Research , 41 ( 5 ), 7 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appiah , O. ( 2007 ). The effectiveness of typical-user testimonial advertisements on Black and White browsers' evaluations of products on commercial websites: Do they really work? Journal of Advertising Research , 47 ( 1 ), 14 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asim , J. ( 2005 , November 13 ). On bleaching Beyonce . Toronto Star , p. A17 .
   Google Scholar
• Baker , C. N. ( 2005 ). Images of women's sexuality in advertisements: A content analysis of Black- and White-oriented women's and men's magazines . Sex Roles , 52 , 13 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berscheid , E. ( 1966 ). Opinion change and communicator–communicatee similarity and dissimilarity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 4 , 670 – 680 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béteille , A. ( 1967 ). Race and descent as social categories in India . Daedalus , 96 , 444 – 463 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breland , A. M. ( 1998 ). A model for differential perceptions of competence based on skin tone among African Americans . Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development , 26 , 294 – 311 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bristor , J. M. , Lee , R. G. , & Hunt , M. R. ( 1995 ). Race and ideology: African-American images in television advertising . Journal of Public Policy and Marketing , 14 , 48 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , K. T. ( 1998 ). Consequences of skin tone bias for African Americans: Resources attainment and psychological/social function . African American Research Perspectives , 4 ( 1 ), 55 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Byrne , D. E. ( 1971 ). The attraction paradigm . New York : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Cagley , J. W. , & Cardozo , R. N. ( 1970 ). White response to integrated advertising . Journal of Advertising Research , 10 ( 2 ), 35 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen-Eliya , M. , & Hammer , Y. ( 2004 ). Advertisements, stereotypes, and freedom of expression . Journal of Social Philosophy , 35 , 165 – 187 .
   Google Scholar
• Conklin , W. (2001). The illusion of diversity: When ethics, technology and diversity clash. Diversity Factor , 9(2), 5–10.
   Google Scholar
• Cruz-Janzen , M. I. ( 2003 ). Out of the closet: Racial amnesia, avoidance, and denial—Racism among Puerto Ricans . Race, Gender & Class , 10 ( 3 ), 64 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Dholakia , R. R. , & Sternthal , B. ( 1977 ). Highly credible sources: Persuasive facilitators or persuasive liabilities? Journal of Consumer Research , 3 , 223 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudley , S. C. ( 1999 ). Consumer attitudes toward nudity in advertising . Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice , 7 ( 4 ), 89 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Eagly , A. H. , Ashmore , R. D. , Makhijani , M. G. , & Longo , L. C. ( 1991 ). What is beautiful is good but … A meta-analytical review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype . Psycholoigcal Bulletin , 110 , 109 – 128 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feick , L. , & Higie , R. A. ( 1992 ). The effects of preference heterogeneity and source characteristics on ad processing and judgements about endorsers . Journal of Advertising , 21 ( 2 ), 9 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gergen , K. J. ( 1967 ). The significance of skin color in human relations . Daedalus , 96 , 390 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair , J. F. , Black , W. C. , Babin , B. J. , Anderson , R. E. , & Tatham , R. L. ( 2006 ). Multivariate data analysis . Upper Saddle River , NJ : Pearson/Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , R. E. ( 1992 ). Bias among African Americans regarding skin color: Implications for work practice . Research on Social Work Practice , 2 , 479 – 486 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , R. E. ( 1998 ). Skin color bias: A new perspective on an old social problem . Journal of Psychology , 132 , 238 – 240 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook , M. , & Batra , R. ( 1987 ). Assessing the role of emotions as mediators of consumer response to advertising . Journal of Consumer Research , 14 , 404 – 420 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes , R. M. ( 1995 ). How young children perceive race . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Hovland , C. I. , & Weiss , W. ( 1951 ). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness . Public Opinion Quarterly , 15 , 635 – 650 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard , D. J. , & Kerin , R. A. ( 2004 ). The effects of personalized product recommendations on advertisement response rates: The “try this. It works!” technique . Journal of Consumer Psychology , 14 , 271 – 279 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang , E. S. ( 2001 ). Readers' perception of digital alteration in photojournalism . Journalism & Communication Monographs , 3 , 147 – 182 .
   Google Scholar
• Hunter , M. L. ( 2004 ). Light, bright, and almost White: The advantages and disadvantages of light skin . In C. Herring , V. M. Keith , & H. D. Horton (Eds.), Skin deep: How race and complexion matter in the color-blind era (pp. 22 – 44 ). Urbana : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , L. A. , Hunter , J. E. , & Hodge , C. N. ( 1995 ). Physical attractiveness and intellectual competence: A meta-analytic review . Social Psychology Quarterly , 58 , 108 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , J. , Rush , S. , & Feagin , J. ( 2000 ). Doing anti-racism: Toward an egalitarian American society . Contemporary Sociology , 29 , 95 – 110 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , T. ( 2000 ). Shades of brown: The law of skin color . Duke Law Journal , 49 , 1487 – 1557 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan , K. L. ( 1996 ). Skin tones and physical features of Blacks in magazine advertisements . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 73 , 905 – 912 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerin , R. A. ( 1979 ). Black model appearance and product evaluations . Journal of Communication , 29 , 123 – 128 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kittross , J. M. , & Gordon , A. D. ( 2003 ). The academy and cyberspace ethics . Journal of Mass Media Ethics , 18 , 286 – 307 .
   Google Scholar
• Kolawole , H. ( 1995 , October 26 ). In pursuit of that Snow White look: Naomi Campbell has had her face photographically lightened in order to sell lipstick . Weekly Journal , p. 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Lafferty , B. A. , Goldsmith , R. E. , & Newell , S. J. ( 2002 ). The dual credibility model: The influence of corporate and endorser credibilitty on attitudes and purchase intentions . Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice , 10 ( 3 ), 1 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Lafferty , B. A. , Goldsmith , R. E. , & Flynn , L. R. (2005). Are innovators influenced by endorser expertise in an advertisement when evaluating a high technology product? Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice , 13(3), 32–48.
   Google Scholar
• Leslie , M. ( 1995 ). Slow fade to?: Advertising in Ebony Magazine, 1957–1989 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 , 426 – 435 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln , C. E. ( 1968 ). Color and group identity in the United States . Daedalus , 13 , 527 – 541 .
   Google Scholar
• Livingston , R. W. , & Brewer , M. B. ( 2002 ). What are we really priming? Cue-based versus category-based processing of facial stimuli . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 , 5 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longshore , D. , & Beilin , R. ( 1980 ). Interracial behavior in the prisoner's dilemma: The effect of color connotations . Journal of Black Studies , 11 ( 1 ), 105 – 120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddox , K. B. ( 1998 ). Cognitive representations of light- vs. dark-skinned Blacks: Structure, content, and use of the African American stereotype . Unpublished doctoral dissertation , Santa Barbara : University of California .
   Google Scholar
• Maddox , K. B. ( 2004 ). Perspectives on racial phenotypicality bias . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 8 , 383 – 401 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddox , K. B. , & Chase , S. G. ( 2004 ). Manipulating subcategory salience: Exploring the link between skin tone and social perception of Blacks . European Journal of Social Psychology , 34 , 533 – 546 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddox , K. B. , & Gray , S. A. ( 2002 ). Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the role of skin tone . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 28 , 250 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhotra , N. K. , & King , T. ( 2003 ). Don't negotiate the whole field . Marketing Research , 15 ( 2 ), 43 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Mayo , D. T. , Mayo , C. M. , & Mahdi , S. ( 2005 ). Skin tones in magazine advertising: Does magazine type matter? Journal of Promotion Management , 11 ( 2/3 ), 49 – 59 .
   Google Scholar
• McConahay , J. B. ( 1986 ). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale . In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91 – 125 ). San Diego , CA : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Ohanian , R. ( 1991 ). The impact of celebrity spokespersons' perceived image on consumers' intention to purchase . Journal of Advertising Research , 31 ( 1 ), 46 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe , P. ( 1996 ). Miscegenation law, court cases, and ideologies of “race” in twentieth-century America . Journal of American History , 83 ( 1 ), 44 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson , R. A. ( 2001 ). On the use of college students in social science research: Insights from a second-order meta-analysis . Journal of Consumer Research , 28 , 450 – 461 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pornpitakpan , C. ( 1999 ). The effects of cultural adaptation on business relationships: Americans selling to Japanese and Thais . Journal of International Business Studies , 30 , 317 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putrevu , S. , & Lord , K. R. ( 1994 ). Comparative and noncomparative advertising: Attitudinal effects under cognitive and affective involvement conditions . Journal of Advertising , 23 ( 2 ), 77 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramos , J. ( 2003 ). Exploring the effects of colorism in advertising . Unpublished master's thesis , State University of New York–Purchase College .
   Google Scholar
• Russell , K. , Wilson , M. L. , & Hall , R. E. ( 1992 ). The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans . New York : Bantam/Doubleday .
   Google Scholar
• Schroeder , J. E. , & Zwick , D. ( 2004 ). Mirrors of masculinity: Representation and identity in advertising images . Consumption, Markets and Culture , 7 ( 1 ), 21 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Sengupta , S. ( 2000 ). In the eyes of the beholder: The relevance of skin tone and facial features of African American female models to advertising effectiveness . Communication Research Reports , 17 , 210 – 220 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith-McLallen , A. , Johnson , B. T. , Dovidio , J. F. , & Pearson , A. R. ( 2006 ). Black and White: The role of color bias in implicit race bias . Social Cognition , 24 , 46 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stafford , M. R. , Stafford , T. F. , & Day , E. (2002). A contingency approach: The effects of spokesperson type and service type on service advertising perceptions. Journal of Advertising , 31(2), 17–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford , C. ( 2000 ). Advertising in Black and White: How and why perceptions of difference shape magazine advertisements . Eruditio , 20 ( 1 ), 1 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Sundstrom , R. R. ( 2001 ). Being and being mixed race . Social Theory & Practice , 27 , 285 – 307 .
   Google Scholar
• Terkildsen , N. ( 1993 ). When White voters evaluate Black candidates: The processing implications of candidate skin color, prejudice, and self-monitoring . American Journal of Political Science , 37 , 1032 – 1053 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , M. S. , & Keith , V. M. ( 2001 ). The Blacker the berry: Gender, skin tone, self-esteem, and self-efficacy . Gender and Society , 15 , 336 – 357 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Till , B. D. , & Busler , M. ( 2000 ). The match-up hypothesis: Physical attractiveness, expertise, and the role of fit on brand attitude, purchase intent and brand beliefs . Journal of Advertising , 29 ( 3 ), 1 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USMagazine.com . ( 2007, April 27 ). Was Alba altered? Retrieved June 18, 2008, from http://www.usmagazine.com/jessica_alba_0
   Google Scholar
• Walker , B. A. ( 2003 ). The color of crime: The case against race-based suspect descriptions . Columbia Law Review , 103 , 662 – 668 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Washington , R. E. ( 1990 ). Brown racism and the formation of a world system of racial stratification . International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society , 4 , 209 – 227 .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , S. ( 2006 ). The relevance of skin tone: Viewers' responses to Black models in advertisements . Unpublished doctoral dissertation , Mississippi State University .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , S. , Stern , B. B. , & DeJong , P. F. ( in press ). Ethical responses to public allegations of skin tone manipulation in print advertising: Consumer indifference or consumer concern? Journal of Promotion Management .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , S. , Thornton , C. G. , & Engelland , B. T. ( in press ). Skin color shades in advertising to ethnic audiences: The case of African Americans . Journal of Marketing Communications .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , S. , & Verter , N. S. ( 2009, April 4 ). Diversity issues in sales employment: Investigating the effects of racial prejudice and colorism on preinterview impressions of a Hispanic job applicant . Paper presented at the Houston Selling & Sales Management Conference , University of Houston , Houston , TX .
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , J. L. , & Mowen , J. C. ( 1985 ). The impact of product recalls on consumer perceptions . MOBIUS; Journal of the Society of Consumer Affairs Professionals in Business , 14 ( 1 ), 18 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Wheeler , T. H. ( 2002 ). Phototruth or photofiction? Ethics and media imagery in the digital age . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Whittler , T. E. ( 1989 ). Viewers' processing of actor's race and message claims in advertising stimuli . Psychology & Marketing , 6 , 287 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Whittler , T. E. , & DiMeo , J. ( 1991 ). Viewers' reactions to racial cues in advertising stimuli . Journal of Advertising Research , 31 ( 6 ), 37 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willadsen-Jensen , E. C. , & Ito , T. A. ( 2006 ). Ambiguity and the timecourse of racial perception . Social Cognition , 24 , 580 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , J. E. ( 1969 ). Individual differences in color–name connotations as related to measures of racial attitudes . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 29 , 383 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winer , R. R. ( 1999 ). Experimentation in the 21st century: The importance of external validity . Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , 27 , 349 – 358 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar