A Review on Germanium Resources and its Extraction by Hydrometallurgical Method

References

• Arrambide Cruz, C., S. Marie, G. Arrachart, and S. Pellet-Rostaing. 2018. Selective extraction and separation of germanium by catechol based resins. Separation and Purification Technology 193:214–19. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2017.11.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., C. Fernández-Pereira, P. B. Oroz, and J. Olivares Del Valle. 2011. Industrial equipment design for the recovery of germanium from coal fly ash leachates by solvent extraction. Word of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference, Denver, CO, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., and C. Pereira. 2008. Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Germanium from Coal Gasification Fly Ash. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 47:3186–91. doi:10.1021/ie7016948.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., C. F. Pereira, J. Olivares, and P. Coca. 2009. Hydrometallurgical recovery of germanium from coal gasification fly ash. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 48:3573–79. doi:10.1021/ie800730h.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., O. Font, J. M. Chimenos, C. Fernández-Pereira, X. Querol, and P. Coca. 2014. IGCC fly ash valorisation. Optimisation of Ge and Ga recovery for an industrial application. Fuel Processing Technology 124:222–27. doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.03.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo Torralvo, F., C. Fernández-Pereira, E. García Villard, Y. Luna, C. Leiva, L. Vilches, and R. Villegas. 2018. Low environmental impact process for germanium recovery from an industrial residue. Minerals Engineering 128:106–14. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2018.07.022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bumba, J., P. Dytrych, R. Fajgar, F. Kastanek, and O. Solcova. 2018. Total germanium recycling from electronic and optical waste. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 57:8855–62. doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.8b01237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butterman, W. C. 1988. Current status of the specialty metals. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 3:69–86. doi:10.1080/08827508808952616.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, W. S., B. C. Chang, and K. L. Chiu. 2017. Recovery of germanium from waste Optical Fibers by hydrometallurgical method. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 5:5215–21. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2017.09.048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, W. S., B. C. Chang, and Y. J. Chen. 2018. Using ion-exchange to recovery of germanium from waste optical fibers by adding citric acid. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 159. Vietnam: Da Nang.
   Google Scholar
• Chimenos, J. M., A. I. Fernández, R. Del Valle-Zermeño, O. Font, X. Querol, and P. Coca. 2013. Arsenic and antimony removal by oxidative aqueous leaching of IGCC fly ash during germanium extraction. Fuel 112:450–58. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2013.05.059.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cote, G., and D. Bauer. 1980. Liquid-liquid extraction of germanium with oxine derivatives. Hydrometallurgy 5:149–60. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(80)90035-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtolo, D. C., S. Friedrich, and B. Friedrich. 2017. High purity germanium, a review on principle theories and technical production methodologies. Journal of Crystallization Process and Technology 07:65–84. doi:10.4236/jcpt.2017.74005.
   Google Scholar
• De Schepper, A. 1976. Liquid-liquid extraction of germanium by LIX 63. Hydrometallurgy 1:291–98. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(76)90005-0.
   Google Scholar
• Depuydt, B., M. D. Jonghe, W. D. Baets, I. Romandic, A. Theuwis, C. Quaeyhaegens, and T. A. Chrystel Deguet. 2007. Germanium materials. In Germanium-based technologies, ed. C. Claeys and E. Simoen, 11–39. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Drzazga, M., A. Chmielarz, G. Benke, K. Leszczyńska-Sejda, M. Knapik, P. Kowalik, and M. Ciszewski. 2019. Precipitation of germanium from sulphate solutions containing tin and indium using tannic acid. Applied Sciences 9:966.
   Google Scholar
• Drzazga, M., R. Prajsnar, A. Chmielarz, G. Benke, K. Leszczyńska-Sejda, M. Ciszewski, K. Bilewska, and G. Krawiec. 2018. Germanium and indium recovery from zinc metallurgy by-products—dross leaching in sulphuric and oxalic acids. Metals 8:1041. doi:10.3390/met8121041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etschmann, B., W. Liu, K. Li, S. Dai, F. Reith, D. Falconer, G. Kerr, D. Paterson, D. Howard, P. Kappen, et al. 2017. Enrichment of germanium and associated arsenic and tungsten in coal and roll-front uranium deposits. Chemical Geology 463:29–49. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2017.05.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fayram, T. S., and C. G. Anderson. 2008. The development and implementation of industrial hydrometallurgical gallium and germanium recovery. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 108:261–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Font, O., X. Querol, A. López-Soler, J. M. Chimenos, A. I. Fernández, S. Burgos, and F. García Peña. 2005. Ge extraction from gasification fly ash. Fuel 84:1384–92. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.06.041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenzel, M., M. P. Ketris, and J. Gutzmer. 2014. On the geological availability of germanium. Mineral Deposits 49:471–86. doi:10.1007/s00126-013-0506-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González, A., O. Font, N. Moreno, X. Querol, N. Arancibia, and R. Navia. 2017. Copper flash smelting flue dust as a source of germanium. Waste and Biomass Valorization 8:2121–29. doi:10.1007/s12649-016-9725-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, B., and N. Mudhar. 2006. Extraction and separation of germanium using cyanex 301/cyanex 923. Its recovery from transistor waste. Separation Science and Technology 41:549–72. doi:10.1080/01496390500525021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbuck, D., 1992. Gallium and germanium recovery from domestic sources. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Harbuck, D. D., J. C. Judd, and D. V. Behunin. 1991. Germanium solvent extraction from sulfuric acid solutions (and co-extraction of germanium and gallium). Solvent Extraction Ion Exchange 9:383–401. doi:10.1080/07366299108918060.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernández-Expósito, A., J. M. Chimenos, A. I. Fernández, O. Font, X. Querol, P. Coca, and F. García Peña. 2006. Ion flotation of germanium from fly ash aqueous leachates. Chemical Engineering Journal 118:69–75. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höll, R., M. Kling, and E. Schroll. 2007. Metallogenesis of germanium-A review. Ore Geology Reviews 30:145–80. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, R. Z., H. W. Qi, M. F. Zhou, W. C. Su, X. W. Bi, J. T. Peng, and H. Zhong. 2009. Geological and geochemical constraints on the origin of the giant Lincang coal seam-hosted germanium deposit, Yunnan, SW China: A review. Ore Geology Reviews 36:221–34. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2009.02.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonsson, E., and K. Högdahl. 2019. On the occurrence of gallium and germanium in the Bergslagen ore province, Sweden. GFF 141:48–53. doi:10.1080/11035897.2018.1525619.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalderis, D., E. Tsolaki, C. Antoniou, and E. Diamadopoulos. 2008. Characterization and treatment of wastewater produced during the hydro-metallurgical extraction of germanium from fly ash. Desalination 230:162–74. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.11.023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalyanaraman, S., and S. Khopkar. 1977. Solvent Extraction of Germanium Using Tributyl Phosphate. Indian Journal of Chemistry-Section A 15:1031–33.
   Google Scholar
• Kamran Haghighi, H., M. Irannajad, A. Fortuny, and A. M. Sastre. 2018. Recovery of germanium from leach solutions of fly ash using solvent extraction with various extractants. Hydrometallurgy 175:164–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamran Haghighi, H., M. Irannajad, A. Fortuny, and A.M. Sastre. 2019. Selective separation of germanium(IV) from simulated industrial leachates containing heavy metals by non-dispersive ionic extraction. Minerals Engineering 137:344–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kul, M., and Y. Topkaya. 2008. Recovery of germanium and other valuable metals from zinc plant residues. Hydrometallurgy 92:87–94. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuroiwa, K., S. I. Ohura, S. Morisada, K. Ohto, H. Kawakita, Y. Matsuo, and D. Fukuda. 2014. Recovery of germanium from waste solar panels using ion-exchange membrane and solvent extraction. Minerals Engineering 55:181–85. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2013.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landsberg, H. H. 1988. Materials: New Faces and Old. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 3:29–44. doi:10.1080/08827508808952613.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S. 2018. Introductory chapter: Advanced material and device applications with germanium. 2–9, Norderstedt, Germany: IntechOpen.
   Google Scholar
• Li, J., X. Zhuang, X. Querol, O. Font, M. Izquierdo, and Z. Wang. 2014. New data on mineralogy and geochemistry of high-Ge coals in the Yimin coalfield, Inner Mongolia, China. International Journal of Coal Geology 125:10–21. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2014.01.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, D., J. Wang, and Y. Wang. 2009. Difference in dissolution between germanium and zinc during the oxidative pressure leaching of sphalerite. Hydrometallurgy 95:5–7. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.03.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, D., J. Wang, Y. Wang, F. Wang, and J. Jiang. 2008. Behavior of tannins in germanium recovery by tannin process. Hydrometallurgy 93:140–42. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.03.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, J., L. Fan, K. Xu, and Y. Huang. 2012. Study on extracting of germanium with trioctylamine. Energy Procedia 17:1965–73. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.02.340.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, F., Y. Yang, Y. Lu, K. Shang, W. Lu, and X. Zhao. 2010. Extraction of germanium by the AOT microemulsion with N235 system. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 49:10005–08. doi:10.1021/ie100963t.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, F., Z. Liu, Y. Li, B. P. Wilson, and M. Lundström. 2017a. Recovery and separation of gallium(III) and germanium(IV) from zinc refinery residues: Part I: Leaching and iron(III) removal. Hydrometallurgy 169:564–70. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2017.03.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, F., Z. Liu, Y. Li, B. P. Wilson, and M. Lundström. 2017b. Extraction of Ga and Ge from zinc refinery residues in H2C2O4 solutions containing H2O2. International Journal of Mineral Processing 163:14–23. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2017.04.005.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, F., Z. Liu, Y. Li, B. P. Wilson, Z. Liu, L. Zeng, and M. Lundström. 2017c. Recovery and separation of gallium(III) and germanium(IV) from zinc refinery residues: Part II: Solvent extraction. Hydrometallurgy 171:149–56. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2017.05.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, F., Z. Liu, Y. Li, Z. Liu, Q. Li, and L. Zeng. 2016. Extraction of gallium and germanium from zinc refinery residues by pressure acid leaching. Hydrometallurgy 164:313–20. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.06.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, X. H., W. Q. Qin, and X. L. Wu. 2013. Extraction of germanium(IV) from acid leaching solution with mixtures of P204 and TBP. Journal of Central South University 20:1978–84. doi:10.1007/s11771-013-1698-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maimoni, A., and I. Y. Borg. 1983. Strategic materials shortages: Institutional and technical issues for the U.S. Mineral Procesing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 1:155–206. doi:10.1080/08827508308952592.
   Google Scholar
• Melcher, F., and P. Buchholz. 2012. Current and future germanium availability from primary sources, current and future germanium availability from primary sources. Minor Metals Conference, Cologne.
   Google Scholar
• Moskalyk, R. R. 2004. Review of germanium processing worldwide. Minerals Engineering 17:393–402. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2003.11.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen, T. H., T. T. N. Nguyen, and M. S. Lee. 2018. Hydrochloric acid leaching behavior of mechanically activated black dross. Journal of the Korean Institute of Resources Recycling 27:78–85.
   Google Scholar
• Nozoe, A., K. Ohto, and H. Kawakita. 2012. Germanium recovery using catechol complexation and permeation through an anion-exchange membrane. Separation Science and Technology 47:62–65. doi:10.1080/01496395.2011.613440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nusen, S., Z. Zhu, T. Chairuangsri, and C. Y. Cheng. 2015. Recovery of germanium from synthetic leach solution of zinc refinery residues by synergistic solvent extraction using LIX 63 and Ionquest 801. Hydrometallurgy 151:122–32. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.11.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pat Shanks, W. C., III, B. E. Kimball, and A. C. Tolcin2017, Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply. In Germanium and Indium, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA.
   Google Scholar
• Pokrovski, G. S., and J. Schott. 1998. Experimental study of the complexation of silicon and germanium with aqueous organic species: Implications for germanium and silicon transport and Ge/Si ratio in natural waters. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta 62:3413–28. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00249-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, S., D. Wang, Z. Liu, K. Zhang, H. Cao, and J. Tao. 2019. Selective extraction of zinc, gallium, and germanium from zinc refinery residue using two stage acid and alkaline leaching. Hydrometallurgy 183:38–44. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2018.11.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rentsch, L., I. A. Aubel, N. Schreiter, M. Höck, and M. Bertau. 2016. PhytoGerm Ge extraction from biomass-An economic pre-feasibility study. Journal of Business Chemistry 13:44–58.
   Google Scholar
• Robertz, B., J. Verhelle, and M. Schurmans. 2015. The primary and secondary production of germanium: A life-cycle assessment of different process alternatives. Jom 67:412–24. doi:10.1007/s11837-014-1267-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz, A. G., P. C. Sola, and N. M. Palmerola. 2018. Germanium: Current and novel recovery processes. In Advanced material and device applications with germanium, ed. S. Lee, 9–30. Norderstedt, Germany: IntechOpen.
   Google Scholar
• Sargar, B. M., and M. A. Anuse. 2005. Solvent extraction separation of germanium(IV) with N-n-octylaniline as an extractant. Journal of Analytical Chemistry 60:404–08. doi:10.1007/s10809-005-0109-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takemura, H., S. Morisada, K. Ohto, H. Kawakita, Y. Matsuo, and D. Fukuda. 2013. Germanium recovery by catechol complexation and subsequent flow through membrane and bead-packed bed column. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 88:1468–72. doi:10.1002/jctb.3985.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, S., C. Zhou, X. Jiang, and C. Zhao. 2000. Extraction separation of germanium with hydroxamic acid HGS98. Journal of Central South University of Technology 7:40–42. doi:10.1007/s11771-000-0011-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torma, A. E., and H. Jiang. 1991. Extraction processes for gallium and germanium. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 7:235–58. doi:10.1080/08827509108952673.
   Google Scholar
• Torralvo, F. A., and C. Fernández-Pereira. 2011. Recovery of germanium from real fly ash leachates by ion-exchange extraction. Minerals Engineering 24:35–41. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2010.09.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torralvo, F. A., and C. Pereira. 2010. Recovery of germanium from aqueous solution by solvent extraction. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 49:4817–23. doi:10.1021/ie901020f.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Roosendael, S., J. Roosen, D. Banerjee, and K. Binnemans. 2019b. Selective recovery of germanium from iron-rich solutions using a supported ionic liquid phase (SILP). Separation and Purification Technology 221:83–92. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2019.03.068.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Roosendael, S., M. Regadío, J. Roosen, and K. Binnemans. 2019a. Selective recovery of indium from iron-rich solutions using an Aliquat 336 iodide supported ionic liquid phase (SILP). Separation and Purification Technology 212:843–53. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2018.11.092.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaverbeke, S. 1994. The etching mechanisms of SiO2 in hydrofluoric acid. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 141:2852. doi:10.1149/1.2059243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virolainen, S., J. Heinonen, and E. Paatero. 2013. Selective recovery of germanium with N-methylglucamine functional resin from sulfate solutions. Separation and Purification Technology 104:193–99. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2012.11.023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, S. A., and I. M. Samson. 2006. The aqueous geochemistry of gallium, germanium, indium and scandium. Ore Geology Reviews 28:57–102. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2003.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., W. Guo, J. Peng, J. Li, G. Lin, and X. Yu. 2016. Comparison of ultrasonic-assisted and regular leaching of germanium from by-product of zinc metallurgy. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 31:143–49. doi:10.1016/j.ultsonch.2015.12.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., and Z. Xu. 2017. Application of vacuum reduction and chlorinated distillation to enrich and prepare pure germanium from coal fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials 321:18–27. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.08.070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., and Z. Xu. 2018. A critical review of material flow, recycling technologies, challenges and future strategy for scattered metals from minerals to wastes. Journal of Cleaner Production 202:1001–25. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, T., T. Jiang, and Z. Liu. 2019. Recovery of Ge(IV) from synthetic leaching solution of secondary zinc oxide by solvent extraction using tertiary amine (N235) as extractant and trioctyl phosphate (TOP) as modifier. Minerals Engineering 136:155–60. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2019.03.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Z. A., G. Chu, H. X. Gan, T. Z. Yang, and L. Chen. 2013. Ge and Cu recovery from precipitating vitriol supernatant in zinc plant. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 23:1506–11. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(13)62623-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar