2,412
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The Direct Leaching of Nickel Sulfide Flotation Concentrates - A Historic and State-of-the-Art Review Part II: Laboratory Investigations into Pressure Leaching

, ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon

References

  • Anderson, C. G., K. D. Harrison, and L. E. Krys. 1993. Processintegration of sodium nitrite oxidation and fine grinding in refractory precious metal concentrate pressure leaching. In Precious metals 1993: Proceedings of the seventeenth international precious metals conference, ed. R. K. Mishra, 19–45. Newport, Rhode Island: International Precious Metals Institute.
  • Anderson, C., and S. Nordwick. 1994. The application of Sunshine nitrous-sulfuric acid pressure leaching to sulfide materials containing platinum group metals. In Prcpecious Metals 1994. Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Precious Metals Conference, ed. J. G. Peacey, 223–34. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: International Precious Metals Institute.
  • Anderson, C., K. Harrison, and L. Krys. 1996a. Theoretical considerations of sodium nitrite oxidation and fine grinding in refractory precious-metal concentrate pressure leaching. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 13 (1):4–11. doi:10.1007/BF03402709.
  • Anderson, C., K. Harrison, L. Krys, and S. Nordwick. 1996b. The application of sodium nitrite oxidation and fine grinding in refractory precious-metal concentrate pressure leaching. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 13 (1):12–18. doi:10.1007/BF03402710.
  • Anderson, C. G. 2003. Treatment of copper ores and concentrates with industrial nitrogen species catalyzed pressure leaching and non-cyanide precious metals recovery. The Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (JOM) 55 (4):32–36. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0085-z.
  • Anderson, C. G. 2004. Applications of NSC pressure leaching. In Proceedings of the international conference on the use of pressure vessels for metal extraction and recovery, ed. M. J. Collins and V. G. Papangelakis, 855–86. Banff, Alberta, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
  • Baláž, P. 2003. Mechanical activation in hydrometallurgy. International Journal of Mineral Processing 72 (1–4):341–54. doi:10.1016/S0301-7516(03)00109-1.
  • Baldwin, S. A., and G. Van Weert. 1996. On the catalysis of ferrous sulphate oxidation in autoclaves by nitrates and nitrites. Hydrometallurgy 42 (2):209–19. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00092-U.
  • Berezowsky, R. 2000. The pressure acid leaching of nickel sulphide concentrates, TMS 129th Annual Meeting. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Opryland Hotel, Nashville, Tennessee, USA. Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 32.
  • Bjorling, G., and G. Kolta. 1964. Oxidizing leach of sulphide concentrates and other materials catalyzed by nitric acid. VII Int. In Mineral processing congress, Part III, edited by Arbiter, N. 127–38. New York, NY: Gordon and Breach Sci. Publ.
  • Bjorling, G., and G. Kolta. 1966. Wet oxidation of iron sulphide concentrates catalyzed by nitric acid. Journal of Chemistry of the United Arab Republic (J CHEM UAR) 9 (2):187–203.
  • Bjorling, G., I. Faldt, E. Lindgren, and I. Toromanov. 1976. Nitric acid route in combination with solvent extraction for hydrometallurgical treatment of chalcopyrite. In Extractive metallurgy of copper, ed. J. C. Yannopoulos and J. C. Agarwal, 725–37. New York: AIME.
  • Blandy, C. W. D., and T. Salinovich, inventor(s); WMC Resources Ltd, assignee. 1995. Mineral Processing. AU Patent 709751B2. Filed September 4.
  • Bol’-Shikh, A., O. Tsybin, M. Bol’-Shikh, O. Kuznetsova, and A. Levin. 2021. Substantiation of the possibility to organize a complex two-stage sulfuric acid leaching technology for pyrrhotinemiddlings. Russian Metallurgy (Metally) 2021 (1):1–6. doi:10.1134/S0036029521010031.
  • Brock, G., F. Mccarthy, and M. Rodriguez, inventor(s); Direct Nickel Pty Ltd, Poseidon Nickel Ltd, assignee(s). 2013. Method for the recovery of metals from nickel bearing ores and concentrates. AU Patent 2013325098. Filed September18.
  • Brown, J. A., and V. G. Papangelakis. 2005. Interfacial studies of liquid sulphur during aqueous pressure oxidation of nickel sulphide. Minerals Engineering 18 (15):1378–85. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2005.02.008.
  • Campagnol, N., K. Hoffman, A. Lala, and O. Ramsbottom. The future of nickel: A class act. 2017. McKinsey & Company 16. accessed August 31, 2021. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Industries/Metals%20and%20Mining/Our%20Insights/The%20future%20of%20nickel%20A%20class%20act/The%20future%20of%20nickel%20A%20class%20act.ashx#:~:text=The%20future%20of%20nickel%3A%20A%20class%20act5%20switch,in%20developing%20these%20technologies%2C%20resulting%20in%20their%20growing.
  • Canterford, J. 1983. Oxide ores of nickel—The Australian situation. Mineral Procesing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 1 (1–2):85–109. doi:10.1080/08827508308952590.
  • Corrans, I., and J. Angove. 1991. Ultra fine milling for the recovery of refractory gold. Minerals Engineering 4 (7–11):763–76. doi:10.1016/0892-6875(91)90064-3.
  • Corrans, I., G. Johnson, and J. Angove. 1993. The recovery nickel and gold from sulphide concentrates. In XVIII international mineral processing congress, ed. J. T. Woodcock, 1227–31. Australia: Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM), Sydney.
  • Crossley, B., T. Gerrans, D. Honey, and D. Muir, inventor(s); WMC Resources Ltd, assignee. 1998. Leaching of a nickel sulphide concentrate. AU Patent 8077698A. Filed August 18.
  • Crundwell, F., M. Moats, V. Ramachandran, T. Robinson, and W. G., Davenport, ed. 2011a. Converting – Final oxidation of iron from molten matte. In Extractive metallurgy of nickel, cobalt and platinum-group metals, 233–46. Netherlands: Elsevier.
  • Crundwell, F., M. Moats, V. Ramachandran, T. Robinson, and W. G. Davenport, ed. 2011b. Extraction of nickel and cobalt from sulfide ores. In Extractive metallurgy of nickel, cobalt and platinum-group metals, 147–58. Netherlands: Elsevier.
  • Crundwell, F., M. Moats, V. Ramachandran, T. Robinson, and W. G. Davenport, ed. 2011c. Flash smelting of nickel sulfide concentrates. In Extractive metallurgy of nickel, cobalt and platinum-group metals, 215–32. Netherlands: Elsevier.
  • Crundwell, F., M. Moats, V. Ramachandran, T. Robinson, and W. G. Davenport, ed. 2011d. Separation of the platinum-group metals from base metal sulfides, and the refining of nickel, copper and cobalt. In Extractive metallurgy of nickel, cobalt and platinum-group metals, 457–87. Netherlands: Elsevier.
  • Crundwell, F., M. Moats, V. Ramachandran, T. Robinson, and W. G. Davenport, ed. 2011e. Smelting of nickel sulfide concentrates by roasting and electric furnace smelting. In Extractive metallurgy of nickel, cobalt and platinum-group metals, 199–214. Netherlands: Elsevier.
  • Dalvi, A., G. Bacon, and R. Osborne. 2004. The past and future of nickel laterites, PDAC 2004 International Convention trade show and investors exchange, 7 - 10 March Metro Toronto Convention Centre, Canada, Toronto, Canada: Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada, 27.
  • Deng, T. 1995. Upgrading nickeliferous pyrrhotite concentrates by aqueous oxidation coupled with precipitation and flotation. International Journal of Mineral Processing 43 (1–2):91–98. doi:10.1016/0301-7516(94)00042-X.
  • Downes, K. W., and R. W. Bruce. 1955. The recovery of elemental sulfur from pyrite and pyrrhotite. Transactions of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum 58:77–82.
  • Droppert, D. J., and Y. Shang. 1995. The leaching behaviour of nickeliferous pyrrhotite concentrate in hot nitric acid. Hydrometallurgy 39 (1–3):169–82. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00034-E.
  • Elias, M. 2002. Nickel laterite deposits-geological overview, resources and exploitation. Giant ore deposits: Characteristics, genesis and exploration. CODES Special Publication 4:205–20.
  • Fair, K., J. Schneider, and G. Van Weert. 1987. Options in the NITROX PROCESS®. In The international symposium on gold metallurgy, ed. R. S. Salter and D. M. M. Wyslouzil, G. W. McDonald, pp. 279–91. New York, Toronto, Canada: Pergamon Press.
  • Fang, Z. 1997. Leaching Ni-Co-Cu concentrate in chloride solution with oxygenation. II. Leaching behavior of Cu, Fe and S (English abstract only). Huagong Yejin(engineering Chemistry and Metallurgy)(china) 18 (4):327–31.
  • Ferron, C., and C. Fleming. 2004. Co-Treatment of limonitic laterites and sulphur-bearing materials as an alternative to the HPAL process. International laterite nickel symposium, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA, 2004, Mar 14-18.Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 245–61.
  • Fossi, P., L. Gandon, C. Bozec, and J. M. Demarthe. 1977. Refining of high-nickel concentrates. CIM Bulletin (Canadian Institute of Mining Metallurgy and Petroleum) 70 (783):188–96.
  • Gok, O. 2010. Oxidative leaching of sulfide ores with the participation of nitrogen species-A review. Journal of Ore Dressing 12 (24):22.
  • Guerra, E., and J. L. Shepherd. 2011. The effect of polytetrafluoroethylene on pressure oxidation of nickeliferous pyrrhotite. Hydrometallurgy 106 (3–4):179–82. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.01.004.
  • Habashi, F. 1973. Treatment of a low-grade nickel copper sulfide concentrate by nitric acid. transactions of the society of mining engineers of AIME (American Institute of Mining). Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers 254 (3):228–30.
  • Hoatson, D. M., S. Jaireth, and A. L. Jaques. 2006. Nickel sulfide deposits in Australia: Characteristics, resources, and potential. Ore Geology Reviews 29 (3–4):177–241. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2006.05.002.
  • Honey, D. J., D. M. Muir, and P. R. Hunt. 1997. Hydrometallurgical processing options for nickel sulphide concentrates. In Proceedings of the nickel-cobalt 97 international symposium, ed. W. C. Cooper, I. Mihaylov, pp. 15–29. Sudbury, ON, Canada: The Metallurgical Society of CIM.
  • Hubli, R., T. Mukherjee, and C. Gupta. 1983. A ferrous chloride-oxygen leach process for nickel-copper sulphide concentrations. Hydrometallurgy 10 (3):359–66. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(83)90065-8.
  • Hubli, R., T. Mukherjee, S. Venkatachalam, R. Bautista, and C. Gupta. 1995. Kinetics of millerite dissolution in cupric chloride solutions. Hydrometallurgy 38 (2):149–59. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(94)00047-7.
  • Jones, W. E., E. Krause, and C. E. O’-Neill, inventor(s); Inco Ltd, assignee. 1974. High Temperature Leaching of Sulfide Ores. CA Patent 1024355A. Filed November 5.
  • Jones, D. L., inventor; Cominco Engineering Services Ltd, assignee. 1996. Process for the recovery of nickel and/or cobalt from an ore or concentrate. US Patent 5855858A. Filed June 7.
  • Jones, D., J. Hestrin, and R. Moore. 1998. CESL process for nickel/cobalt/copper sulphides, testing in an integrated pilot plant, ALTA 1998 Nickel/Cobalt Pressure Leaching and Hydrometallurgy Forum, p. 12. Melbourne, Australia, Perth, Australia: ALTA Metallurgical Services.
  • Kalashnikova, M., J. Shneerson, M. Keskinova, and V. Chetvertakov. 2003. Non-toxic method of nickel/cobalt/copper sulphides precipitation as rich concentrates from diluted sulphate solutions. Yazawa International Symposium: Metallurgical and Materials Processing: Principles and Techologies; Aqueous and Electrochemical Processing, San Diego, California, USA, March 2 - 6. Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 267–75.
  • Khoshnevisan, A., H. Yoozbashizadeh, M. Mozammel, and S. K. Sadrnezhaad. 2012. Kinetics of pressure oxidative leaching of molybdenite concentrate by nitric acid. Hydrometallurgy 111:52–57. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2011.10.002.
  • Kosyakov, A., M. Hamalainen, P. Gromov, A. Kasikov, V. Masloboev, and Y. Neradovsky. 1995. Autoclave processing of low grade copper-nickel concentrates. Hydrometallurgy 39 (1–3):223–34. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00037-H.
  • Kulebakin, V. G., V. N. Fedorov, A. L. Sirkis, Y. T. Mazurov, V. A. Mikhin, and T. S. Yusupov. 1981. Autoclave leaching of activated pyrhotite concentrate. Soviet Mining 17 (6):566–69. doi:10.1007/BF02497998.
  • Kulebakin, V., and A. Sirkis. 1983. Mechanism of autoclave-oxidative leaching of activated pentlandite. Soviet Mining 19 (4):330–34. doi:10.1007/BF02505371.
  • Kuzeci, E., X.-M. Li, and R. Kammel. 1989. Acid leaching of a nickel sulphide concentrate (in German). Metall 43 (5):434–39.
  • Magwaneng, R. S., A. Batnasan, K. Haga, and A. Shibayama. 2017. Development of a combined Flotation and high pressure leaching process for copper and nickel recovery from mine tailing. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering 5 (03):118. doi:10.4236/jmmce.2017.53010.
  • McCarthy, F., and G. Brock. 2011. The direct nickel process continued progress on the pathway to commercialisation, ALTA 2011 Nickel/Cobalt/Copper Conference, Burswood Convention Centre, Perth, Australia, May 23 - 25. Castlemaine, Victoria, Australia: Alta Metallurgical Services, 2–11.
  • McDonald, R., and D. Muir. 2007. Pressure oxidation leaching of chalcopyrite: Part II: Comparison of medium temperature kinetics and products and effect of chloride ion. Hydrometallurgy 86 (3–4):206–20. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.11.016.
  • McDonald, R., and B. Whittington. 2008a. Atmospheric acid leaching of nickel laterites review: Part I. Sulphuric acid technologies. Hydrometallurgy 91 (1–4):35–55. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.11.009.
  • McDonald, R., and B. Whittington. 2008b. Atmospheric acid leaching of nickel laterites review. Part II. Chloride and bio-technologies. Hydrometallurgy 91 (1–4):56–69. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.11.010.
  • McDonald, R., M. Rodriguez, J. Li, D. Robinson, M. Jackson, and T. Hosken. 2012. The co-processing of nickel sulphide and laterite materials using low oxygen pressures Pressure Hydrometallurgy 2012, Proc. of the 42nd Annual Hydrometallurgy Meeting, Niagara Falls, Canada, September 30 - October 3. Westmount, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, 211–25.
  • McDonald, R. G., and J. Li. 2020. The high temperature co-processing of nickel sulfide and nickel laterite sources. Minerals 10 (4):351. doi:10.3390/min10040351.
  • McDonald, R. G., J. Li, and P. J. Austin. 2020. High temperature pressure oxidation of a low-grade nickel sulfide concentrate with control of the residue composition. Minerals 10 (3):249. doi:10.3390/min10030249.
  • McRae, M. E. 2018. Nickel. In Metals and minerals: U.S. geological survey minerals yearbook 2015, pp. 1–18. Reston, Virginia, USA: U.S. Geological Survey. accessed October 22, 2021.
  • McRae, M. E. 2020a. Nickel. In Mineral commodity summaries 2020. U.S. geological survey, 112–13. Reston, Virginia, USA.
  • McRae, M. E. 2020b. Nickel. In Metals and minerals: U.S. geological survey minerals yearbook 2016, 1–18. Reston, Virginia, USA: U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from [downloaded September 21st, 2020b].
  • Meshram, P., A. Pillai, and B. D. Pandey. 2018. Advanced review on extraction of nickel from primary and secondary sources. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 40 (3):157–93. doi:10.1080/08827508.2018.1514300.
  • Mudd, G. M. 2010. Global trends and environmental issues in nickel mining: Sulfides versus laterites. Ore Geology Reviews 38 (1–2):9–26. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.05.003.
  • Mukherjee, T., R. Hubli, and C. Gupta. 1985. A cupric chloride-oxygen leach process for a nickel-copper sulphide concentrate. Hydrometallurgy 15 (1):25–32. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(85)90064-7.
  • Naftal, M. N., S. S. Naboychenko, R. Y. Sharkiy, A. F. Petrov, and N. A. Lapshina. 2013. Increasing of extraction of nickel and platinum group metals in technology of autoclave oxidation leaching of nickel-pyrrhotine concentrates (English abstract only). Tsvetnye Metally 9:100–13.
  • Naftal, M. N., S. S. Naboichenko, E. V. Salimzhanova, O. V. Bol’-Shakova, and T. P. Saverskaya. 2015. Influence of various stabilizing factors on an elemental sulfur emulsion during high-temperature leaching of nickel-pyrrhotine concentrates. Russian Metallurgy (Metally) 2015 (3):171–84. doi:10.1134/S0036029515030052.
  • O’-Callaghan, J., inventor; Murrin Murrin Operations Pty Ltd, assignee. 2009. A Hydrometallurgical method for leaching base metals. WO Patent 2010031137A1. Filed September 18.
  • O’-Neill, C. E., inventor; Inco Ltd, assignee. 1971. Acid leaching of lateriticores. US Patent 3773891A. Filed December 10.
  • Opratko, V., J. Bell, and R. Ferrajuolo, inventor(s). 1971. Acid leaching of lateritic ore. US Patent 3809549A. Filed June 21.
  • Pandey, B., D. Bagchi, V. Kumar, A. Agrawal, and Premchand. 2002. Pressure sulpuric acid leaching of a sulphide concentrate to recover copper, nickel and cobalt. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy 111 (2):106–09. doi:10.1179/mpm.2002.111.2.106.
  • Pawlek, F. E. 1976. The influence of grain size and mineralogical composition on the leachability of copper concentrates. In Extractive metallugy of copper - hydrometallurgy and electrowinning, ed. J. C. Yannopoulos and J. C. Agarwal, 691–705. Nevada, USA: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Las Vegas.
  • Perederiy, I., V. G. Papangelakis, M. Buarzaiga, and I. Mihaylov. 2011. Co-treatment of converter slag and pyrrhotite tailings via high pressure oxidative leaching. Journal of Hazardous Materials 194:399–406. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.08.012.
  • Peters, E. 1992. Hydrometallurgical process innovation. Hydrometallurgy 29 (1–3):431–59. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(92)90026-V.
  • Prater, J., P. Queneau, and T. Hudson. 1973. Nitric acid route to processing copper concentrates. AIME Translation 254:117–22.
  • Quinn, J., J. Turner, and D. van der Muelen. 2009. The Combined Pressure Acid Leach (CPAL) process, batch and piloting testwork. In Recent Advances in mineral processing plant design, ed. D. Malhotra, P. R. Taylor, E. Spiller and M. LeVier, 140–54, Colorado, USA: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME).
  • Rodriguez, M., inventor; Poseidon Nickel Ltd, Murrin Murrin Operations Pty Ltd, assignee(s). 2008a. Method for the Recovery of Nickel from Ores. AU Patent 2008100563C4. Filed June 19.
  • Rodriguez, M., inventor; Murrin Murrin Operations Pty Ltd, assignee. 2008b. Method for Leaching Nickel. AU Patent 2008101213A4. Filed December 11.
  • Rodriguez, M., inventor; Poseidon Nickel Ltd, Murrin Murrin Operations Pty Ltd, assignee(s). 2009. Rheological method for the hydrometallurgical recovery of base metals from ores. WO Patent 2009149522A1. Filed on June 15.
  • Ryan, P. J. M., inventor; Inco Ltd, assignee. 1972. Leaching Sulfide Concentrates. CA Patent 964867A. Filed May 8.
  • Shukla, P., T. Mukherjee, and C. Gupta. 1978. A nitric acid route for processing a nickel/copper sulphide concentrate. Hydrometallurgy 3 (1):55–64. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(78)90006-3.
  • Smirnov, K. M., N. A. Raspopov, Y. M. Shneerson, A. Y. Lapin, G. A. Bitkov, Y. A. Men’-Shikov, P. N. Paskhin, and V. P. Kirichenko. 2010. Autoclave leaching of molybdenite concentrates with catalytic additives of nitric acid. Russian Metallurgy (Metally) 2010 (7):588–95. doi:10.1134/S0036029510070025.
  • Smyres, G. A., K. P. Lei, and T. G. Carnahan. 1985. Hydrochloric acid-oxygen leaching and metal recovery from a copper-nickel bulk sulfide concentrate. Report of investigations, 8999. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 17.
  • Solntsev, K., V. Bryukvin, M. Naftal, and A. Bol’-Shikh. 2020a. On the assumed mechanism of the pressure oxidation of pyrrhotine during the pressure oxidation leaching of a low-nickel pyrrhotine product using Iron (III) Ions as an oxidant. Russian Metallurgy (Metally) 2020 (11):1326–30. doi:10.1134/S0036029520110154.
  • Solntsev, K. A., M. N. Naftal, V. A. Bryukvin, M. I. Mantsevich, I. N. Khramtsova, L. V. Antonenko, M. S. Antonenko, N. V. Serova, and O. I. Tsybin. 2020b. Substantiation of a combined technology for the hydrometallurgical beneficiation of a pyrrhotine-containing charge based on pressure oxidation leaching using ferric sulfate as a pyrrhotine oxidizer. Russian Metallurgy (Metally) 2020 (9):942–54. doi:10.1134/S003602952009013X.
  • Subramanian, K., and R. Ferrajuolo. 1976. Oxygen pressure leaching of Fe-Ni-Cu sulfide concentrates at 110°C—effect of low chloride addition. Hydrometallurgy 2 (2):117–25. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(76)90022-0.
  • Tandon, D., A. Saha, M. Mahanty, and P. Bhatnagar. 1971. Studies on ammoniacal pressure leaching of bulk Ni-Cu-Mo sulphide concentrate. NML Technical Journal 13 (4):87–92.
  • Tarasov, A. V., and E. M. Timoshenko. 2004. Investigation of method of addition of surfactant to the pressure leaching of nickel-containing pyrrhotite concentrates. In Proceedings of the international conference on the use of pressure vessels for metal extraction and recovery, ed. M. J. Collins and V. G. Papangelakis, 295–304. Banff, Alberta, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
  • Tong, L. 2009. Sulfur dispersing agents for nickel sulfide leaching above the melting point of sulfur. Doctoral diss., University of British Columbia, 258 pp.
  • Tong, L., and D. Dreisinger. 2009a. The adsorption of sulfur dispersing agents on sulfur and nickel sulfide concentrate surfaces. Minerals Engineering 22 (5):445–50. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2008.12.006.
  • Tong, L., and D. Dreisinger. 2009b. Interfacial properties of liquid sulfur in the pressure leaching of nickel concentrate. Minerals Engineering 22 (5):456–61. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2008.12.003.
  • Totlani, M., and J. Balachandra. 1969. Studies in leaching of sulphide concentrates of copper and nickel from indigenous source. Symposium on Non-Ferrous Metals Technology 23–26.
  • van Weert, G., and Y. Shang. 1993. Iron control in nitrate hydrometallurgy by (auto) decomposition of iron (II) nitrate. Hydrometallurgy 33 (3):255–71. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(93)90066-M.
  • Vezina, J. A. 1973. Further studies on acid pressure leaching a chalcopyrite-pentlandite-pyrrhotite concentrate. CIM Transactions LXXVI:89–92.
  • Vizsolyi, A., and E. Peters. 1980. Nitric acid leaching of molybdenite concentrates. Hydrometallurgy 6 (1–2):103–19. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(80)90011-0.
  • Wang, Z., and L. Zhao, 1993. The acidic oxidizing pressure leaching of Jinchuan pyrrhotite concentrate. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Mining and Metallurgy of Complex Nickel Ores. Beijing: International Academic Publishers, September 5 - 8, Jinchang, China Fu, C., 267–73.
  • Warner, T., N. Rice, and N. Taylor. 1996. Thermodynamic stability of pentlandite and violarite and new EH-pH diagrams for the iron-nickel sulphur aqueous system. Hydrometallurgy 41 (2–3):107–18. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00081-Q.
  • Warner, A. E. M., C. M. Díaz, A. D. Dalvi, P. J. Mackey, A. V. Tarasov, and R. T. Jones. 2007. JOM world nonferrous smelter survey Part IV: Nickel: Sulfide. Jom 59 (4):58–72. doi:10.1007/s11837-007-0056-x.
  • Watling, H. 2008. The bioleaching of nickel-copper sulfides. Hydrometallurgy 91 (1–4):70–88. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.11.012.
  • Whittington, B., and D. Muir. 2000. Pressure acid leaching of nickel laterites: A review. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metullargy Review 21 (6):527–99. doi:10.1080/08827500008914177.