214
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Expectancy Violations, Message Elaboration, and It Can Wait® Messages

ORCID Icon, &

References

  • Afifi, W. A., & Metts, S. (1998). Characteristics and consequences of expectation violations in close relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(3), 365–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407598153004
  • Agley, J. (2021). Expectancy violation and COVID-19 misinformation: A comment on Bogomoletc and Lee’s “Frozen meat against COVID-19 misinformation: An analysis of Steak-Umm and positive expectancy violations“. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 35(4), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/10506519211021614
  • American Academy of Family Physicians. (2022). Survey finds one in three U.S. teens texts while driving. Retrieved October 15, 2022, from https://www.aafp.org/news/health-of-the-public/20180928textndrive.html
  • AT&T. (2022). Take the pledge to never drive distracted. Retrieved September 22, 2022, from https://about.att.com/csr/itcanwait
  • Averbeck, J. M. (2015). Patient–provider orientation as a language expectancy origin for controlling language in doctor–patient interactions. Communication Reports, 28(2), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2014.935454
  • Averbeck, J. M., & Miller, C. (2014). Expanding language expectancy theory: The suasory effects of lexical complexity and syntactic complexity on effective message design. Communication Studies, 65(1), 72–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2013.775955
  • Benoit, I. D., Miller, E. G., Kordrostami, E., & Ekebas-Turedi, C. (2021). Improving the effectiveness of anti-texting and driving PSAs: The effect of ad elements on attitude change. Journal of Social Marketing, 11(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-06-2020-0103
  • Bogomoletc, E., & Lee, N. M. (2021). Frozen meat against COVID-19 misinformation: An analysis of Steak-Umm and positive expectancy violations. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 35(1), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1050651920959187
  • Brashers, D. E., & Jackson, S. (1999). Changing conceptions of “message effects”: A 24-year overview. Human Communication Research, 25(4), 457–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1999.tb00456.x
  • Bummara, V., & Choi, J. (2015). Exploring the effectiveness of distracted driving PSA (Public Service Announcement). Advances in Journalism and Communication, 3, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajc.2015.34008
  • Burgoon, J. K. (1978). A communication model of personal space violations: Explication and an initial test. Human Communication Research, 4(2), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1978.tb00603.x
  • Burgoon, J. K. (1993). Interpersonal expectations, expectancy violations, and emotional communication. Journal of Language & Social Psychology, 12(1–2), 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X93121003
  • Burgoon, J. K. (2016). Expectancy violations theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of corporate reputation (pp. 1–9). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic0102
  • Burgoon, M., Birk, T. S., & Hall, J. R. (1991). Compliance and satisfaction with physician-patient communication an expectancy theory interpretation of gender differences. Human Communication Research, 18(2), 177–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1991.tb00543.x
  • Burgoon, J. K., Dunbar, N. E., & Segrin, C. (2002, October). Nonverbal influenceIn J. P. Dillard & M. Pfau (Ed.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 446–474). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976046.n23
  • Campo, S., Cameron, K. A., Brossard, D., & Frazer, M. S. (2004). Social norms and expectancy violation theories: Assessing the effectiveness of health communication campaigns. Communication Monographs, 71(4), 448–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363452042000307498
  • Carpenter, C. J. (2015). A meta-analysis of the ELM’s argument quality × processing type predictions. Human Communication Research, 41(4), 501–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12054
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Transportation safety: Distracted driving. Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/transportationsafety/Distracted_Driving/index.html/.
  • Clementson, D. E., Pascual-Ferrá, P., & Beatty, M. J. (2016). When does a presidential candidate seem presidential and trustworthy? Campaign messages through the lens of language expectancy theory. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 46(3), 592–617. https://doi.org/10.1111/psq.12299
  • Constantinou, E., Panayiotou, G., Konstantinou, N., Loutsiou-Ladd, A., & Kapardis, A. (2011). Risky and aggressive driving in young adults: Personality matters. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(4), 1323–1331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.02.002
  • Daily, K. (2017). Solomon four-group design. In K. Daily (Ed.), SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411
  • de Los Santos, T. M., & Nabi, R. L. (2019). Emotionally charged: Exploring the role of emotion in online news information seeking and processing. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 63(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2019.1566861
  • Diegelmann, S., Ninaus, K., & Terlutter, R. (2020). Distracted driving prevention: An analysis of recent UK campaigns. Journal of Social Marketing, 10(2), 243–264. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-07-2019-0105
  • Dillard, J. P., Shen, L., & Vail, R. G. (2007). Does perceived message effectiveness cause persuasion or vice versa? 17 consistent answers. Human Communication Research, 33(4), 467–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00308.x
  • Everett, M. W., & Palmgreen, P. (1995). Influences of sensation seeking, message sensation value, and program context on effectiveness of anticocaine public service announcements. Health Communication, 7(3), 225–248. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327027hc0703_3
  • Fishbein, M., Hall-Jamieson, K., Zimmer, E., von Haeften, I., & Nabi, R. (2002). Avoiding the boomerang: Testing the relative effectiveness of antidrug public service announcements before a national campaign. American Journal of Public Health, 92(2), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.92.2.238
  • Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x
  • Governors Highway Safety Association. (2014). 2014 winner: It Can Wait campaign. Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://www.ghsa.org/about/safety-awards/2014-winner-it-can-waitr-campaign
  • Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
  • Hayes, A. F. (2022). Process macro (version 4.1) [Computer software]. http://processmacro.org/index.html
  • Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2003). The importance of indirect effects in media effects research: Testing for mediation in structural equation modeling. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(4), 556–572. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4704_5
  • Huskey, R., Wilcox, S., Clayton, R. B., & Keene, J. R. (2020). The limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing: Meta-analytically summarizing two decades of research. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(4), 322–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1839939
  • Jackson, S. (1992). Message effects research: Principles of design and analysis. Guilford Press.
  • Keene, J. R., & Lang, A. (2016). Dynamic motivated processing of emotional trajectories in public service announcements. Communication Monographs, 83(4), 468–485. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2016.1198040
  • Kim, H. K., & Tandoc, E. C. (2021). Wear or not to wear a mask? Recommendation inconsistency, government trust and the adoption of protection behaviors in cross-lagged TPB models. Health Communication, 37(7), 833–841. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1871170
  • Lang, A., & Yegiyan, N. (2008). Understanding the interactive effects of emotional appeal and claim strength in health messages. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(3), 432–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150802205629
  • Lemarié, L., Bellavance, F., & Chebat, J. C. (2019). Regulatory focus, time perspective, locus of control and sensation seeking as predictors of risky driving behaviors. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 127(March), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.02.025
  • Mendes, W. B., Blascovich, J., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Jost, J. T. (2007). Threatened by the unexpected: Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 698–716. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.698
  • Morgan, B. S. E., Palmgreen, P., Stephenson, M. T., Hoyle, R. H., & Lorch, E. P. (2003). Associations between message features and subjective evaluations of the sensation value of antidrug public service announcements. Journal of Communication, 53(3), 512–526. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02605.x
  • Mulac, A., & Kunkel, D. (1989). Methodological issues in the study of message effects. In J. Bradac (Ed.), Message effects in communication science (pp. 52–74). SAGE Publications.
  • National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2021). Traffic safety facts research note: Distracted driving 2019. Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/transportationsafety/Distracted_Driving/index.html
  • National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2022). Distracted Driving. Retrieved October 12, 2022, from https://www.nhtsa.gov/risky-driving/distracted-driving
  • Niederdeppe, J. D. (2005). Syntactic indeterminacy, perceived message sensation value-enhancing features, and message processing in the context of anti-tobacco advertisements. Communication Monographs, 72(3), 324–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750500206862
  • Noar, S. M., Palmgreen, P., Zimmerman, R., Lustria, M. L. A., & Lu, H.-Y. (2010). Assessing the relationship between perceived message sensation value and perceived message effectiveness: Analysis of PSAs from an effective campaign. Communication Studies, 61(1), 21–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970903396477
  • Nudd, T. (2015, July 20). AT&T’s latest ‘It Can Wait’ ad shows a brutal crash in reverse, but there’s no going back. AdWeek. Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://www.adweek.com/creativity/atts-latest-it-can-wait-ad-shows-brutal-crash-reverse-theres-no-going-back-166004/
  • O’Keefe, D. J. (2003). Message properties, mediating states, and manipulation checks: Claims, evidence, and data analysis in experimental persuasive message effects research. Communication Theory, 13(3), 251–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2003.tb00292.x
  • O’Keefe, D. J. (2012). The elaboration likelihood model. In J. Dillard & L. Shen (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 137–149). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452218410.n9
  • O’Keefe, D. J. (2015). Message generalizations that support evidence-based persuasive message design: Specifying the evidentiary requirements. Health Communication, 30(2), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.974123
  • Palmgreen, P., Stephenson, M. T., Everett, M. W., Baseheart, J. R., & Francies, R. (2002). Perceived Message Sensation Value (PMSV) and the dimensions and validation of a PMSV scale. Health Communication, 14(4), 403–428. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327027HC1404_1
  • Peters, C., & Schrøder, K. C. (2018). Beyond the here and now of news audiences: A process-based framework for investigating news repertoires. Journal of Communication, 68(6), 1079–1103. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy060
  • Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. Springer-Verlag New York Inc. https://doi.org/10.2307/1422805
  • Petty, R. E., Fleming, M. A., Priester, J. R., & Feinstein, A. H. (2001). Individual versus group interest violation: Surprise as a determinant of argument scrutiny and persuasion. Social Cognition, 19(4), 418–442. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.19.4.418.20758
  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
  • Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658
  • Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42(1), 185–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316
  • Reeves, B., Yeykelis, L., & Cummings, J. J. (2016). The use of media in media psychology. Media Psychology, 19(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1030083
  • Shen, L., & Bigsby, E. (2012). The effects of message features: Content, structure, and style. In J. Dillard & L. Shen (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 137–149). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452218410
  • Siegel, J. T., & Burgoon, J. K. (2002). Expectancy theory approaches to prevention: Violating adolescent expectations to increase the effectiveness of public service announcements. In W. D. Crano & M. Burgoon (Eds.), Mass media and drug prevention: Classic and contemporary theories and research (pp. 163–186). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Stephenson, M. T., & Palmgreen, P. (2001). Sensation seeking, perceived message sensation value, personal involvement, and processing of anti-marijuana PSAs. Communication Monographs, 68(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750128051
  • Tormala, Z. L., & Clarkson, J. J. (2007). Assimilation and contrast in persuasion: The effects of source credibility in multiple message situations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(4), 559–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206296955
  • Turner, M. M., Jang, Y., Heo, R., Ye, Q., Long, J., & Barry, R. C. (2022, November 17-20). Theory-driven manipulation checks for emotional appeals: Revisiting message properties and manipulation checks [paper presentation]. National Communication Association 108th Annual Convention.
  • U.S. Department of Transportation. (2019). Mother Valetta Bradford of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Discusses the crash that paralyzed her young son. Retrieved October 14, 2022, from https://www.transportation.gov/briefing-room/us-dot-releases-new-“faces-distracted-driving”-videofeaturing-5-year-old-xzavier-davis#:
  • Walther-Martin, W. (2015). Media-generated expectancy violations: A study of political humor, race, and source perceptions. Western Journal of Communication, 79(4), 492–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2015.1072233
  • Wang, Z., Vang, M., Lookadoo, K., Tchernev, J. M., & Cooper, C. (2015). Engaging high-sensation seekers: The dynamic interplay of sensation seeking, message visual-auditory complexity and arousing content. Journal of Communication, 65(1), 101–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12136
  • Wong, N. (2018). Well that was unexpected: Effect of intimacy and commitment on responses to an interpersonal expectancy violation. Studies in Media and Communication, 6(2), 45. https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v6i2.3586
  • Xu, J. (2015a). Designing messages with high sensation value: When activation meets reactance. Psychology and Health, 30(4), 423–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.977280
  • Xu, J. (2015b). Message sensation and cognition values: Factors of competition or integration? Health Communication, 30(6), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.852460
  • Xu, J. (2017, January). Message sensation value in health and risk. In Oxford research encyclopedia: Communication. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.305
  • Yuan, S., & Besley, J. C. (2018). Talking aggressively about GMOs? Examining the effect of aggressive risk communication with communicator’s facial expression and gender. Journal of Risk Research, 21(12), 1592–1607. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2017.1351480

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.