The Influence of Online Political Expression on Disagreement and Incivility: The Moderating Role of Social Identity

References

• Adorjan, M., Khiatani, P. V., & Chui, W. H. (2021). The rise and ongoing legacy of localism as collective identity in Hong Kong: Resinicisation anxieties and punishment of political dissent in the post-colonial era. Punishment & Society, 23(5), 650–674. https://doi.org/10.1177/14624745211040308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmadi, M., & Wohn, D. Y. (2018). The antecedents of incidental news exposure on social media. Social Media + Society, 4(2), 205630511877282. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118772827
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130–1132. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M. (2015). The role of news in promoting political disagreement on social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnidge, M. (2018). Social affect and political disagreement on social media. Social Media + Society, 4(3), 205630511879772. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118797721
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benhabib, S. (1996). Toward a deliberative model of democratic legitimacy. In S. Benhabib (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political (pp. 67–94). Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boulianne, S. (2017). Revolution in the making? Social media effects across the globe. Information, Communication & Society, 22(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2017.1353641
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boxell, L., Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. M. (2017). Greater internet use is not associated with faster growth in political polarization among US demographic groups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(40), 10612–10617. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706588114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, D. J., & Geer, J. G. (2007). Beyond negativity: The effects of incivility on the electorate. American Journal of Political Science, 51(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00233.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpini, M. X. D. (Ed.). (2019). Digital media and democratic futures: Democracy, citizenship, and company. University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Chambers, S. (2021). Truth, deliberative democracy, and the virtues of accuracy: Is fake news destroying the public sphere? Political Studies, 69(1), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719890811
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, M. (2016). Social network sites and political engagement: Exploring the impact of Facebook connections and uses on political protest and participation. Mass Communication and Society, 19(4), 430–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1161803
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, C. H., Chow, C. S. L., & Fu, K. W. (2019). Echoslamming: How incivility interacts with cyberbalkanization on the social media in Hong Kong. Asian Journal of Communication, 29(4), 307–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2019.1624792
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, Z., Zhang, B., & De Zúñiga, H. G. (2022). Antecedents of political consumerism: Modeling online, social media and WhatsApp news use effects through political expression and political discussion. The International Journal of Press/politics, 28(4), 995–1016. https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612221075936
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, G. M., Muddiman, A., Wilner, T., Pariser, E., & Stroud, N. J. (2019). We should not get rid of incivility online. Social Media & Society, 5(3), 205630511986264. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119862641
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Chinese University of Hong Kong. (2016). The identity and national identification of Hong Kong people survey results. https://ccpos.com.cuhk.edu.hk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/The-Identity-and-National-Identification-of-Hong-Kong-People-ENG.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Coe, K., Kenski, K., & Rains, S. A. (2014). Online and uncivil? Patterns and determinants of incivility in newspaper website comments. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 658–679. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2009). Commonality and the complexity of “we”: Social attitudes and social change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308326751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dvir-Gvirsman, S. (2019). Political social identity and selective exposure. Media Psychology, 22(6), 867–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2018.1554493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekström, M., & Shehata, A. (2016). Social media, porous boundaries, and the development of online political engagement among young citizens. New Media & Society, 20(2), 740–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816670325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellison, N., & Vitak, J. (2015). Social media affordances and their relationship to social capital processes. In S. Sundar (Ed.), The handbook of psychology of communication technology (pp. 203–227). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Frischlich, L., Schatto-Eckrodt, T., Boberg, S., & Wintterlin, F. (2021). Roots of incivility: How personality, media use, and online experiences shape uncivil participation. Media and Communication, 9(1), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v9i1.3360
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervais, B. T. (2014). Following the news? Reception of uncivil partisan media and the use of incivility in political expression. Political Communication, 31(4), 564–583. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2013.852640
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervais, B. T. (2015). Incivility online: Affective and behavioral reactions to uncivil political posts in a web-based experiment. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 12(2), 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2014.997416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil De Zúñiga, H., Barnidge, M., & Diehl, T. (2018). Political persuasion on social media: A moderated moderation model of political discussion disagreement and civil reasoning. The Information Society, 34(5), 302–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2018.1497743
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil de Zúñiga, H., Molyneux, L., & Zheng, P. (2014). Social media, political expression, and political participation: Panel analysis of lagged and concurrent relationships. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 612–634. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goyanes, M., Borah, P., & Gil De Zúñiga, H. (2021). Social media filtering and democracy: Effects of social media news use and uncivil political discussions on social media unfriending. Computers in Human Behavior, 120, 106759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106759
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groshek, J., & Cutino, C. (2016). Meaner on mobile: Incivility and impoliteness in communicating contentious politics on sociotechnical networks. Social Media + Society, 2(4), 205630511667713. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116677137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, K. A., & Hughes, J. E. (1998). Cyberpolitics: Citizen activism in the age of the Internet. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A., & Smith, J. R. (2007). Attitudes in social context: A social identity perspective. European Review of Social Psychology, 18(1), 89–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701592070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchens, M. J., Cicchirillo, V. J., & Hmielowski, J. D. (2015). How could you think that?!?!: Understanding intentions to engage in political flaming. New Media & Society, 17(8), 1201–1219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814522947
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019). The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22(1), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M. (2018). How does Facebook news use lead to actions in South Korea? The role of Facebook discussion network heterogeneity, political interest, and conflict avoidance in predicting political participation. Telematics and Informatics, 35(5), 1373–1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2018.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y. (2011). The contribution of social network sites to exposure to political difference: The relationships among SNSs, online political messaging, and exposure to cross-cutting perspectives. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 971–977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. W., Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2021). The distorting prism of social media: How self-selection and exposure to incivility fuel online comment toxicity. Journal of Communication, 71(6), 922–946. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klar, S. (2014). Identity and engagement among political independents in America. Political Psychology, 35(4), 577–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kligler-Vilenchik, N., Baden, C. & Yarchi, M.(2020). Interpretative polarization across platforms: How political disagreement develops over time on Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp. Social Media + Society, 6(3), 2056305120944393. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120944393
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi, T. (2020). Depolarization through social media use: Evidence from dual identifiers in Hong Kong. New Media & Society, 22(8), 1339–1358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820910124
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korostelina, K. (2014). Intergroup identity insults: A social identity theory perspective. Identity, 14(3), 214–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2014.921170
   Google Scholar
• Kwon, K. H., Stefanone, M. A., & Barnett, G. A. (2014). Social network influence on online behavioral choices. American Behavioral Scientist, 58(10), 1345–1360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764214527092
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, F. L. F. (2013). “Tolerated one way but not the other”: Levels and determinants of social and political tolerance in Hong Kong. Social Indicators Research, 118(2), 711–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0433-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, H., & Zhang, X. (2021). Partisan bias of perceived incivility and its political consequences: Evidence from survey experiments in Hong Kong. Journal of Communication, 71(3), 357–379. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyu, Z. (2023). Cross-cutting interaction, inter-party hostility, and partisan identity: Analysis of offensive speech in social media. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231180654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masood, M., Skoric, M. M., & Ahmed, S. (2023). Digital pathways to inclusion: Incidental exposure on social media, pro-kinority content, and political tolerance in a non-Western democracy. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2023.2298274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massaro, T. M., & Stryker, R. (2012). Freedom of speech, liberal democracy, and emerging evidence on civility and effective democratic engagement. Arizona Law Review, 54, 375–441. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/arz54&i=387
   Google Scholar
• Meng, X., & Wang, Y. (2023). To trust or not to trust? Exploring the roles of Facebook and WhatsApp use and network diversity. Mass Communication and Society, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2023.2248956
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Min, S. J., & Wohn, D. Y. (2018). All the news that you don’t like: Cross-cutting exposure and political participation in the age of social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutz, D. C. (2002). Cross-cutting social networks: Testing democratic theory in practice. American Political Science Review, 96(1), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055402004264
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutz, D. C. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nanz, A., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2020). Antecedents of intentional and incidental exposure modes on social media and consequences for political participation: A panel study. Acta Politica, 57(2), 235–253. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-020-00182-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papacharissi, Z. (2004). Democracy online: Civility, politeness, and the democratic potential of online political discussion groups. New Media & Society, 6(2), 259–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444804041444
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin UK.
   Google Scholar
• Rains, S. A., Kenski, K., Coe, K., & Harwood, J. (2017). Incivility and political identity on the internet: Intergroup factors as predictors of incivility in discussions of news online. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(4), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12191
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathje, S., Van Bavel, J. J., & Van Der Linden, S. (2021). Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(26). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024292118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roccas, S., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0602_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossini, P. (2022). Beyond incivility: Understanding patterns of uncivil and intolerant discourse in online political talk. Communication Research, 49(3), 399–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650220921314
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skoric, M. M., Zhu, Q., & Lin, J. H. T. (2018). What predicts selective avoidance on social media? A study of political unfriending in Hong Kong and Taiwan. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(8), 1097–1115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218764251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Su, L. Y., Xenos, M. A., Rose, K. M., Wirz, C. D., Scheufele, D. A., & Brossard, D. (2018). Uncivil and personal? Comparing patterns of incivility in comments on the Facebook pages of news outlets. New Media & Society, 20(10), 3678–3699. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818757205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sydnor, E. (2017). Platforms for incivility: Examining perceptions across different media formats. Political Communication, 35(1), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1355857
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information, 13(2), 65–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/053901847401300204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tanis, M., & Postmes, T. (2005). A social identity approach to trust: Interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(3), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.256
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theocharis, Y., Barberá, P., Fazekas, Z., & Popa, S. A. (2020). The dynamics of political incivility on Twitter. SAGE Open, 10(2), 215824402091944. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020919447
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, D. F. (2008). Deliberative democratic theory and empirical political science. Annual Review of Political Science, 11(1), 497–520. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.081306.070555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojcieszak, M., & Garrett, R. K. (2018). Social identity, selective exposure, and affective polarization: How priming national identity shapes attitudes toward immigrants via news selection. Human Communication Research, 44(3), 247–273. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqx010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, K. T. W., Zheng, V., & Wan, P. S. (2020). Local versus national identity in Hong Kong, 1998–2017. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 51(5), 803–827. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1799235
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, D. G. (2023). Wrong: How media, politics, and identity drive our appetite for misinformation. Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yumatle, C. (2015). Pluralism. The Encyclopedia of Political Thought, 2724–2743. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0771
   Google Scholar
• Zhu, Q., & Skoric, M. M. (2021). From context collapse to “safe spaces”: Selective avoidance through tie dissolution on social media. Mass Communication and Society, 24(6), 892–917. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2021.1883671
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar