References
- An earlier version of this article was presented at the International Studies Association Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., April 1990. 1 wish to thank readers Carter Drake and Jeffrey Aubert for their helpful suggestions.
- At the George Washington University Classical Seminars, Washington, D.C. 8 November 1989, Professor Josiah Ober of Princeton University said: “Washington could learn much from ancient Rome in its open approach to statecraft. “ (paraphrase). I believe just the opposite, that we could learn more from their undercover operations.
- Livy 9.36 on Tarquinius Superbus, who uses a policy of deceit and trickery that is so unlike a Roman (postremo minimo arte Romana ). Cf. Frontinus 1. 2.2.
- Dvornik , F. 1974 . The Origins of Intelligence Services 53 New Brunswick
- Wheeler , E. L. 1988 . Stratagem and the Vocabulary of Military Trickery 24 Leiden
- Herodian 4.14.8
- Henderson , W. 1901 . “The Chronology of the Wars with Armenia 51–63 A.D.,” . Classical Review , 15 ( 4 ) : 204 – 213 . 266 – 274 .
- Dio Cassius 39.56.2.
- McDowell . Coins from Seleucia 212 Justin 42.4. 1. Dio Cassius 39.56 makes Orodes the first to obtain the throne.
- Sheldon , R. M. 1987 . Tinker, Tailor, Caesar Spy: Espionage in Ancient Rome. Ph.D. Dissertation , 202 – 204 . University of Michigan . Justin 42.4.5. See
- Debevoise , N.C. 1968 . Political History of Parthia 82 New York
- Suetonius . Augustus 6
- Jones , A. H. M. 1970 . Augustus , 10 New York : W. W. Norton .
- Plutarch . Caesar 60 See Dio Cassius 44.15: Appian, Civil Wars 2.110:
- Suetonius . Divine Julius 79.3
- Debevoise , N. C. Political History of Parthia 107
- Livy . Epitome 127 Florus 2.19; Dio Cassius 48.24.4, Velleius Paterculus 2.78;
- Plutarch . Antony 37 Dio Cassius 49.24;
- Ammianus Marcellinus 23.23.
- Pais , E. 1920 . Fasti triumphales Rome Fronto, Epis. 2.1.5;
- Tacitus . Germania 37 Horace, Odes 3.6.9.
- Plutarch . Crassus 33 He first tried poisoning him with aconite and later strangled him.
- Debevoise , N. C. Political History 121 2
- Plutarch . Antony 37 Dio Cassius 49.24:
- Plutarch . Antony 37 and Justin 42.5.3, 60,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 30,000 allies.
- Kromayer , J. 1896 . Hermes , 31 : 71 says Antony did not feel strong enough with the army he had assembled at Zeugma to confront the Parthians on the Mesopotamian plain and therefore took a route through
- Delbrück , Armenia. H. History of the Art of War 1.449
- Magie , D. 1908 . “Mission of Agrippa,” . Classical Philology , 3 : 145ff who suggests that while Agrippa was at Mytilene in 23 B.C. his officers may have been negotiating for the return of the standards. Horace, Odes 1.12.53, and perhaps also 1.12.15 is uncertain.
- Suetonius . Augustus 21.3 and Tiberius 9.1; Justin 42.5.11;
- Livy . Epitome 141 Velleius Paterculus 2.91.1; Florus 2.34.63. See also the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta in Cambridge Ancient History, Plates IV, 148 A and 150.
- Dio Cassius 54.8.
- Horace . Epis 1.12.27
- Justin 41.1.1. See Zanker 1988, 187–92 on the iconography of the Prima Porta statue and coins showing kneeling Parthians.
- Dio 54.9.5–7; Suetonius, Tiberius 9.1; Josephus, AJ 15.105; Festus 19; Velleius Paterculus 2.99.4; 100.1; Tacitus, Annals 2.3.2; 4. 1.
- Mattingly , H. and Sydenham , E. A. 1923 . The Roman Imperial Coinage Vol. I , 63 London The restoration of the standards was recorded on coins struck in Asiatic, Spanish, senatorial and imperial mints. Most of the coin legends that related to contemporary events mentioned the Parthians. Augustus mentions the incident in the Monumentum Ancyranum 5.29.
- Debevoise , N.C. 1968 . Political History of Parthia 143 New York
- Debevoise , N.C. 1968 . Political History of Parthia 147 New York
- We are told that before he died, Gaius was planning campaigns “extending the termini beyond the Rhine, Euphrates and Danube.” Sen. Brev. vit. 4.5.
- Pliny . Natural History 6.141
- Tacitus . Annals 1.1 – 2 .
- Josephus . Antiquities 18.46
- Tacitus . Annals 2.58
- Tacitus . Annals 2.68
- Suetonius . Tiberius 49.2
- Gilmartin , K. 1973 . “Corbulo's Campaigns in the East,” . Historia , : 583 – 626 . For the rhetoric and diplomatic maneuvering with Parthia during Corbulo's campaign, see
- Syme , R. Tacitus 496
- Tacitus . Annals 13.35.1
- The I, II, and III Parthica were three legions formed by Septimius Severus. The first and third were organized in the East, in what was then Mesopotamia. The second was established at Albano, 20 miles south of Rome. I Parthica was first stationed at Nisibis, near the modern town of Al Qamishi on Syria's northeast border. Although it can be assumed to have participated in the successive wars with Persia, no actual record is available. The second participated in Caracalla's Parthian campaign in A.D. 216.
- Eutropius . Breviarum 8.3 Arrian, Parthica fr. 39: Fronto, Princ. hist. (Loeb 11, pp. 212–214). Cf.
- Victor , Aurelius . Epitome 48.10 Classical scholars have tried to clear Trajan of the blame for this murder, but there are certainly enough examples of treachery on both sides.
- An earlier version of this article was presented at the International Studies Association Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., April 1990. 1 wish to thank readers Carter Drake and Jeffrey Aubert for their helpful suggestions.