Which Way to Till This Field? The Cultural Selection of Surface Form in the Rise and Fall of Cultivation Ridges in Northwestern Europe

References

• Adkins , L. and Adkins , R. A. 1982 . A Thesaurus of British Archaeology , London : David & Charles .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , Jonathan . 1983 . Harrows Used in Ireland . Tools and Tillage , 4 ( 4 ) : 195 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , Jonathan . 1984 . A Contribution to the Study of Cultivation Ridges in Ireland . Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland , 114
   Google Scholar
• Bell , Jonathan and Watson , Mervyn . 1986 . Irish Farming: Implements and Techniques 1750–1900 , Edinburgh : John Donald Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Bennett , John W. 1976 . The Ecological Transition: Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation , New York : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Beresford , M. W. 1948 . Ridge and Furrow and the Open Fields . Economic History Review , 1 ( 1 ) : 34 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Boserup , Ester . 1965 . The Conditions of Agricultural Growth , New York : Aldine Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Bowers , R. D. 1965 . Mono-Cultivation Based on Five-Foot Ridges . World Crops , 17 ( 1 ) : 51 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Broadbent , Sylvia M. 1987 . “ The Chibcha Raised-Field System in the Sabana de Bogota, Colombia: Further Investigations ” . In Pre-Hispanic Agricultural Fields in the Andean Region , B.A.R. usaional Series 359 Edited by: Denevan , W. M. , Mathewson , K. and Knapp , G. 425 – 442 . Oxford : British Archaeological Reports .
   Google Scholar
• Butzer , Karl W. 1989 . “ Cultural Ecology ” . In Geography in America , Edited by: Gaile , G. L. and Willmott , C. J. 192 – 208 . Columbus, OH : Merrill Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Caird , J. B. 1983 . “ Patterns of Rural Settlement, 1700–1850 ” . In Scotland, A New Study , Edited by: Clapperton , C. M. 128 – 153 . London : David & Charles .
   Google Scholar
• Caulfield , Seamus . 1978 . Neolithic Fields: The Irish Evidence , British Archaeological Reports, no. 48 Edited by: Bowen , H. and Fowler , P. Oxford : British Archaeological Reports .
   Google Scholar
• Chan , Peter . 1977 . Better Vegetable Gardens the Chinese Way. Peter Chan's Raised-Bed System , Portland : Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Chayanov , A. V. 1966 . The Theory of Peasant Economy , Edited by: Thorner , D. , Kerbley , B. and Smith , R. Homewood, IL : American Economic Association .
   Google Scholar
• Columella , L. J. M. 1941 . On Agriculture , Edited by: Ash , H. B. Cambridge, MA : William Heinemann . [ca. A.D. 50]
   Google Scholar
• Cook , Haley . 1812 . On the Drill Culture of Potatoes . Farmers Magazine , 1 : 46 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Curwen , John C. 1818 . Observations on the State of Ireland, Principally Related to its Agriculture and Rural Population , Vol. 2 , London : Printed for Baldwin, Cradock and Joy .
   Google Scholar
• David , Johan . 1984 . Spade Cultivation in Flanders . Tools and Tillage , 5 ( 1 ) : 3 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , William , ed. 1970 . Value and Valuation , Knoxville : University of Tennessee Press .
   Google Scholar
• Day , Gordon M. 1953 . The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeast . Forest Ecology , 34 : 329 – 346 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denevan , William M. and Turner , B. L. II . 1974 . Forms, Functions, and Associations of Raised Fields in the Old World Tropics . Journal of Tropical Geography , 39 : 24 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Dodgshon , Robert A. 1979 . Landscapes in Need of Improvement . Geographical Magazine , 51 ( 7 ) : 479 – 485 .
   Google Scholar
• Encyclopaedia Britannica—A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, , 1768 ed S.v. “agriculture.”
   Google Scholar
• Evans , E. Estyn . 1970 . “ Introduction ” . In The Spade in Northern and Atlantic Europe , Edited by: Gailey , A. and Fenton , A. 35 – 48 . Belfast : Queens University of Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Everitt , A. M. 1976 . The Making of the Agrarian Landscape of Kent . Archaeologia Cantiana , 92 : 1 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Farris , W. W. 1985 . Population, Disease, and Land in Early japan, 645–900 , Cambridge : Harvard University Press . Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University and the Harvard- Yenching Institute
   Google Scholar
• Faulkner , O. T. 1944 . Experiments on Ridged Cultivation in Tanganyika and Nigeria . Tropical Agriculture , 21 ( 9 )
   Google Scholar
• Fenton , Alexander . 1978 . The North Isles: Orkney and Shetland , Edinburgh : John Donald .
   Google Scholar
• Gailey , Alan . 1971 . Spade Tillage in Southwest Ulster and North Connacht . Tools and Tillage , 1 ( 3 ) : 225 – 236 .
   Google Scholar
• Gailey , Alan and Fenton , Alexander , eds. 1970 . The Spade in Northern and Atlantic Europe , Belfast : Queens University of Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Gluckman , Max . 1941 . Economy of the Central Barotse Plain , The Rhodes- Livingston Papers, no. 7 Livingston, Northern Rhodesia : Rhodes- Livingston Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Green , E. H. W. 1975 . Ridge and Furrow, Mole and Tile . Geography journal , 141 : 88 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Handley , James E. 1953 . Scottish Farming in the Eighteenth Century , London : Faber and Faber .
   Google Scholar
• Hilliard , A. L. 1950 . The Forms of Value: The Extension of a Hedonistic Axiology , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hurst , G. Gillian and Hurst , John G. 1969 . Excavations at the Medieval Village of Wythemial, Northamptonshire . Medieval Archaeology , 13 : 167 – 203 .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , James C. 1961 . The Ridge and Furrow Controversy . Amateur Historian , 5 : 23 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Kerridge , Eric . 1951 . Ridge and Furrow in Agrarian History . Economic History Review, 2d ser , 4 : 14 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• Kerridge , Eric . 1967 . The Agricultural Revolution , London : George Allen and Unwin .
   Google Scholar
• Kerridge , Eric . 1973 . The Farmers of Old England , London : George Allen and Unwin .
   Google Scholar
• King , F. H. 1901 . A Text Book of the Physics of Agriculture , Madison : University of Wisconsin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Knapp , Gregory . 1991 . Andean Ecology: Adaptive Dynamics in Ecuador , Dellplain Latin American Studies, no. 27 Boulder, CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kowal , J. and Stockinger , K. 1973 . Usefulness of Ridge Cultivation in Nigerian Agriculture . Journal of Soil and Water Conservation , 28 ( 3 ) : 136 – 137 .
   Google Scholar
• Lamond , Elizabeth , ed. 1890 . Walter of Henky's Husbandry [13th century] , London : Longmans, Green, and Co .
   Google Scholar
• Lerche , Grith . 1981 . Additional Comments on the Lindholm Hoje Field . Tools and Tillage , 4 ( 2 ) : 110 – 116 .
   Google Scholar
• Lerche , Grith . 1986 . Ridged Fields and Profiles of Plough Furrows. Plowing Practices in Medieval and Post Medieval Times: A Study in Experimental Archaeology (Part 1) . Tools and Tillage , 5 ( 3 ) : 131 – 156 .
   Google Scholar
• Lerche , Grith , Lerche , Grith and Steensberg , Axel . 1980 . Agricultural Tools and Field Shapes: Twenty Five Years of Activity by the usaional Secretariat , Copenhagen : National Museum of Denmark .
   Google Scholar
• Lerche , Grith , Steensberg , Axel and Fenton , Alexander . 1976 . Editorial Page . Tools and Tillage , 3 ( 1 ) : 1
   Google Scholar
• Lerche , Grith , Steensberg , Axel and Fenton , Alexander . 1981 . Editorial Page . Tools and Tillage , 4 ( 2 ) : 65
   Google Scholar
• Loudon , J. C. 1857 . An Encyclopedia of Agriculture. , 5th ed , London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Roberts . [1831]
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , A. T. 1970 . “ Paring and Burning in Ireland ” . In The Spade in Northern and Atlantic Europe , Edited by: Gailey , A. and Fenton , A. 99 – 147 . Belfast : Queens University of Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , A. T. 1972 . Irish Plowing Practices. Part 1 . Tools and Tillage , 2 ( 1 ) : 52 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , A. T. 1974 . Irish Plowing Practices. Part 3 . Tools and Tillage , 2 ( 3 ) : 147 – 160 .
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , A. T. 1975 . The “Gowl-Gob” An Extinct Spade Type from County Mayo, Ireland . Toots and Tillage , 3 ( 3 ) : 191 – 199 .
   Google Scholar
• MacNab , J. W. 1965 . British Strip Lynchets . Antiquity , 39 : 279 – 290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall , Geoffrey . 1978 . The “Rotherham” Plough: The Study of a Novel 18th Century Implement of Agriculture . Tools and Tillage , 3 ( 3 ) : 150 – 167 .
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , Geoffrey . 1982 . The “Rotherham” Plough: New Evidence on Its Original Manufacture and Method of Distribution . Tools and Tillage , 4 ( 3 ) : 131 – 138 .
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell , G. S. , ed. 1983 . The Impact of Aerial Reconnaissance on Archaeology , Council for British Archaeology Report no. 49 London : Council for British Archaeology .
   Google Scholar
• Mead , W. R. and Kain , R. J. P. 1976 . Ridge and Furrow in Kent . Archaeologia Cantiana , 92 : 165 – 171 .
   Google Scholar
• Mills , J. and Shaw , T. 1890 . The First Principles of Agriculture , Toronto : Bryant Press .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , J. E. and Gerik , T. J. 1983 . Wide Beds with Conservation Tillage . Soil and Water Conservation , 38 ( 3 ) : 231 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muir , Richard . 1983 . History From the Air , London : Michael Joseph .
   Google Scholar
• Murphy , Edmund . 1834 . Agricultural Report . The Irish Farmers and Gardener's Magazine , 1 : 556
   Google Scholar
• Myers , Michael D. 1998 . Cultivation Ridges in Theory and Practice: Cultural- Ecological Insights from Ireland , University of Texas at Austin . Ph.D. diss
   Google Scholar
• Nightengale , Michael . 1953 . Ploughing and Field Shapes . Antiquity , 27 : 20 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Oberlander , Theodore M. and Muller , Robert A. 1987 . Essentials of Physical Geography Today. , 2d ed , New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• O'Danachair , Caoimhin . 1970 . “ The Use of the Spade in Ireland ” . In The Spade in Northern and Atlantic Europe , Edited by: Gailey , A. and Fenton , A. 49 – 59 . Belfast : Queens University of Belfast, Institute of Irish Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Parry , M. L. 1976 . A Typology of Cultivation Ridges in Southern Scotland . Tools and Tillage , 3 ( 1 ) : 3 – 19 .
   Google Scholar
• Perkins , J. A. 1977 . Harvest Technology and Labour Supply in Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire 1750–1850. Part 2 . Tools and Tillage , 3 ( 2 ) : 125 – 135 .
   Google Scholar
• Ramskou , Thornkild . 1981 . Lindholm Hoje: A Danish Viking Period Field . Tools and Tillage , 4 ( 2 ) : 98 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Rappaport , Roy A. 1971 . The Flow of Energy in an Agricultural Society . Scientific American , 225 ( 3 ) : 117 – 132 .
   Google Scholar
• Simmons , I. G. 1980 . Ecological-Functional Approaches to Agriculture in Geographical Contexts . Geography , 65 : 305 – 316 .
   Google Scholar
• Sinclair , John . 1814 . An Account of the Systems of Husbandry Adopted by the More Improved Districts of Scotland. , 3d ed , Vol. 1 , Dublin : John Brown . Sir
   Google Scholar
• Stephens , Henry . 1852 . Book of the Farm. , 2d ed , Edinburgh : W. Blackwood .
   Google Scholar
• Stromgaard , Peter . 1989 . Soil and Vegetation Changes Under Shifting Cultivation in the Miombo of East Africa . Geografiska Annaler , 71b : 427 – 444 .
   Google Scholar
• Thaer , Albert T. 1860 . The Principles of Practical Agriculture , New York : C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Tull , Jethro . 1829 . The Horse Hoeing Husbandry , Edited by: Cobbett , W. London : William Cobett . [1731]
   Google Scholar
• Twidale , C. R. 1971 . Farming by the Early Settlers and the Making of Ridges and Furrows in South Australia . Tools and Tillage , 1 ( 3 ) : 205 – 222 .
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East . 1961 . Earthmoving by Manual Labor and Machines , Flood Control Series, no.17 Bangkok : United Nations .
   Google Scholar
• Van Bath , B. H. Slicher . 1960 . “ The Rise of Intensive Husbandry in the Low Countries ” . In Britain and the Netherlands , Edited by: Bromley , J. S. and Kossman , E. H. Vol. 1 , 130 – 153 . London : Oxford-Netherlands Historical Conference .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , Mervyn . 1985 . Common Irish Plough Types and Tillage Techniques . Tools and Tillage , 5 ( 2 ) : 85 – 98 .
   Google Scholar
• Wight , Andrew . 1778 . The Present State of Husbandry in Scotland , Vol. 2 , Edinburgh : Printed for W Strahan and T. Cadell .
   Google Scholar
• Wilken , Gene C. 1987 . Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural Resource Man agement in Mexico and Central America , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Woodham-Smith , Cecil . 1962 . The Great Hunger: Ireland, 1845–1849 , New York : Harper and Row Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Zipf , George Kingsiey . 1949 . Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology , Cambridge : Addison-Wesley Press .
   Google Scholar