A New Approach to Researching the Etiology of Cannabis Use Disorder: Integrating Transmissible and Nontransmissible Risk Within a Developmental Framework

REFERENCES

• Johnston L, O’Malley P, Bachman J, Schullenberg J. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2012. Volume 1: ondary School Students. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. American teens more cautious about using synthetic drugs. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News Service. Available at: http://www.monitoringthefuture.org. Published December 18, 2013. Accessed January 27, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Compton WM, Grant BF, Colliver JD, Glantz MD, Stinson FS. Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States 1991–1992 and 2001–2002. JAMA. 2004;291:2114–2121. doi: 10.1001/jama.291.17.2114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, et al. Cannabis dependence in young adults: an Australian population study. Addiction. 2002;97:187–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2011–2012. NCHS Data Brief, 131. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Falconer DS. The inheritance of liability to certain diseases estimated from the incidence among relatives. Ann Hum Genet. 1965;29:51–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice J, Cloninger C, Reich T. General causal models for sex differences and the familial transmission of the multi-factorial traits: an application to human spatial visualizing ability. Soc Biol. 1980;26:36–47.
   Google Scholar
• Rice J, Cloninger C, Reich T. Multifactorial inheritance with cultural transmission and assortative mating. 1. Description and basic properties of the unitary models. Am J Hum Genet. 1978;30:618–643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopfer CJ, Crowley TJ, Hewitt JK. Review of twin and adoption studies of adolescent substance use. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:710–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanyukov M, Kirisci L, Moss H. Measurement of the risk for substance use disorders. Phenotypic and genetic analysis of an index of common liability. Behav Genet. 2009;39:233–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Mezzich A, et al. Prediction of cannabis use between childhood and young adulthood: clarifying the phenotype and environtype. Am J Addict. 2009;18:36–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner F, Anthony J. Male-female differences in the risk of progression from first use to dependence upon cannabis, cocaine and alcohol. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;86:191–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giedd JN. Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1021:77–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Horner M, Ridenour T. Developmental perspective of substance use disorder etiology. In: Shaffer H, ed. Addiction Syndrome Handbook. Washington, DC: American Psychological Press; 2012:261–288.
   Google Scholar
• Dorard G, Berthoz S, Phan O, et al. Cannabis use and psychiatric and cognitive disorders: the chicken or the egg? Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007;20:228–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LG. The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;96:165–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spear L. The Behavioral Neuroscience of Adolescence. New York: Norton; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Lundqvist T, Jonsson S, Warkentin S. Frontal lobe dysfunction in long-term cannabis users. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2001;23:437–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verrico CD, Jentsch JD, Roth RH. Persistent and anatomically selective reduction in prefrontal cortical dopamine metabolism after repeated, intermittent cannabinoid administration to rats. Synapse. 2003;49:61–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solowig N, Battisti R. The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: a review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2008;1:81–98.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109:e2657–e2664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle DJ. Cannabis and psychosis: what causes what? F1000 Med Rep. 2013; 5(1):1–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheung J, Mann R, Ialomiteanu A, et al. Anxiety and mood disorders and cannabis use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2012;36:118–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern C, Kaestle C, Hallfors D. Perceived physical maturity, age of romantic partner, and adolescent risk behavior. Prev Sci. 2007;8:1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horner MS, Tarter R, Kirisci L, Clark DB. Modeling the association between sexual maturation, transmissible risk, and peer relationships during childhood and adolescence on development of substance use disorder in young adulthood. Am J Addict. 2013;20:1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Westling E, Andrews JA, Hampson SE, et al. Pubertal timing and substance use. The effects of gender, parental monitoring and deviant peers. J Adolec Health. 2008;42:555–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton GC, McMorris BJ, Toumbourou JW, et al. Puberty and the onset of substance use and abuse. Pediatrics. 2004;114:e300–e306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds MD, Tarter R, Kirisci L, et al. Testosterone levels and sexual maturation predict sub stance use disorders in adolescent boys: a prospective study. Biol Psychol. 2007;61:1223–1227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanyukov M, Tarter R, Kirisci L, et al. Liability to substance use disorders. 1. Common mechanisms and manifestations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2003;27:507–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanyukov M, Kirisci L, Tarter R, et al. Liability to substance use disorders: 2. A measurement approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2003; 27:517–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R. Evaluation and treatment of adolescent substance abuse: a decision tree method. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1990;16:1–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Kirisci L, Feske U, Vanyukov M. Modeling the pathways linking childhood hyperactivity and substance use disorder in young adulthood. Psychol Addict Behav. 2007;21:266–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Mezzich A, Reynolds M. Screening current and future diagnosis of psychiatric disorder using the revised Drug Use Screening Inventory. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2007;34:653–665.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mechoulam R, Parker LA. The endocannabinoid system and the brain. Ann Rev Psychol. 2013;64:21–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant JD, Scherer JF, Lyons MJ, Tsuang M, True WR, Bucholz KK. Subjective reactions to cocaine and marijuana are associated with abuse and dependence. Addict Behav. 2005; 39:1574–1586.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35:217–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nestler EJ. Molecular neurobiology of addiction. Am J Addict. 2001;10:201–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob CF, LeMoal M. Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;24:97–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendler KS, Jacobson KC, Prescott CA, Neale MC. Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis cocaine hallucinogens sedatives stimulants and opiates in male twins. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:687–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendler KS, Prescott CA, Myers J, Neale MC. The structure of genetic and environment risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:929–937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuang MT, Lyons MJ, Meyer JM, et al. Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: the role of drug-specific shared vulnerabilities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:967–972.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanyukov MM, Tarter RE, Kirillova GP, et al. Common liability to addiction and “gateway hypothesis”: theoretical, empirical and evolutionary perspective. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;1235:S3–S17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iacono WC, Malone SM, McGue M. Behavioral disinhibition and the development of early onset addiction: common and specific influences. Ann Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4:325–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Vanyukov M, et al. Application of item response theory to quantify substance use disorder severity. Addict Behav. 2006;31:1035–1049.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger RF, Hicks BM, Patrick CJ, et al. Etiological connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: modeling the externalizing spectrum. J Abnorm Psychology. 2002;111:411–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger RF, Markon KF, Patrick CJ, Benning SD, Kramer MD. Linking antisocial behavior substance use and personality: an integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. J Abnorm Psychology. 2007;116:645–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM. Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect. Addiction. 2002;97:1493–1504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandel D, Yamaguchi D. Stages of drug involvement in the U.S. population. In: Kandel D, ed. Stages and Pathways of Drug Involvement: Examining the Gateway Hypothesis. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2002:65–89.
   Google Scholar
• Golub A, Johnson B. Substance use progression and hard drug use in inner city New York. In: Kandel D, ed. Stages and Pathways of Drug involvement: Examining the Gateway Hypothesis. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2002:90–112.
   Google Scholar
• Mackesy-Amiti ME, Fendrich M, Goldsein PJ. Sequence of drug use among serious drug users: typical vs. atypical progression. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1997;45:185–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaze-Temple D, Lo S. Stages of drug use: a community survey of Perth teenagers. Br J Addict. 1992;87:215–225.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tarter RE, Kirisci L, Ridenour T, Vanyukov M. Prediction of cannabis use disorder between childhood and young adulthood using the child behavior checklist. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2008;30 :272–278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloboda Z, Glantz MD, Tarter RE. Revisiting the concepts of risk and protective factors for understanding the etiology and development of substance use and substance use disorders: implications for prevention. Subst Use Misuse. 2012;47:1–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bidwell LC, Henry EA, Willcutt EG, Kinnear MK, Ito TA. Childhood and current ADHD symptom dimensions are associated with more severe cannabis outcomes in college students. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;135:88–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Button TMM, Hewitt JK, Rhee SH, et al. Examination of the causes of covairaton between conduct disorder symptoms and vulnerability to drug dependence. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2006;9:38–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glantz MD, Anthony JC, Berglund PA, et al. Mental disorders as risk factors for later substance dependence. Estimates for optimal prevention and treatment benefits. Psychol Med. 2009;39:1365–1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeWit, H. Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: a review of underlying processes. Addict Biol. 2008;14:22–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verdejo-Garcia A, Lawrence AJ, Clark L. Impulsivity as a vulnerabitly marker for substance use disorders. I. Common mechanisms and manfiestations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008;32:777–810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sihvola E, Rose RJ, Dick DM, et al. Early-onset depressive disorders predict the use of addictive substnaces in adolescence: a prospective study of adolescent Finnish twins. Addiction. 2008;103:2045–2053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark DB, Neighbors B. Adolescent substance abuse and internalizing disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1996;5:45–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman P, Wittchen HU, Hofler M, et al. Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders. A 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychol Med. 2003;33:1211–1222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger R, Markon D. Understanding psychopathology. Melding behavior genetics, personality and quantitation psychology to develop an empirically based model. Curr Direct Psychol Sci. 2006;15:113–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Kirisici L, Ridenour T, Vanyukov M. Prediction of cannabis use disorder between childhood and young adulthood using the Child Behavior Checklist. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2008;30:272–278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks BM, Iacono WG, McGue M. Index of the transmissible common liability to addiction: heritability and prospective associations with substance abuse and related outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;123:S18–S23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Ridenour T, et al. Age of alcohol and cannabis use onset mediates the association of transmissible risk in childhood and development of alcohol and cannabis disorders: evidence for common liability. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;21:38–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridenour TA, Tarter RE, Kirisci L Vanyukov MM. Could a continuous measure of individual transmissible risk be useful in clinical assessment of substance use disorder? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;119:10–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Reynolds M, et al. Computer adaptive testing of liability to addiction: identifying individuals at risk. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;123:S79–S86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirisci L, Tarter R, Ridenour T, Reynolds M, Vanyukov M. Longitudinal modeling of transmissible risk in boys who subsequently develop cannabis use disorder. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013;39:180–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Fishbein D, Kirisci L, et al. Deviant socialization mediates transmissible and contextual risk for cannabis use disorder development: a prospective study. Addiction. 2011;106:1301–1308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Kirisci L, Kirillova G, et al. Relationship among addiction risk, HPA and HPG neuroendocrine systems, and neighborhood quality: results of a 10-year prospective study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;127:228–231.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarter R, Kirisci L, Reynolds M, et al. Chasing the dragon: association between transmissible risk, affect during drug use and development of substance use disorder [unpublished manuscript].
   Google Scholar
• Barak S, Liu F, Ben Hamida, S, et al. Disruption of alcohol-related memories by mTORC1 inhibition prevents relapse. Nat Neurosci. 2013;16:111–1117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalley JW, Laane K, Heobald DEH, et al. Cognitive and behavioral sequelae of intravenous cocaine and amphetamine self-administration in rats: impulsivity as a pre-morbid vulnerability trait. Soc Neurosci. 2004;382:2.
   Google Scholar
• Everett BJ, Dickinson A, Robbins TW. The neuropsychological basis of addictive behavior. Brain Res Rev. 2011;36:129–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds M, Tarter R, Kirisci L, Clark D. Marijuana but not alcohol use during adolescence mediates the association between transmissible risk for substance use disorder and number of lifetime violent offenses. J Crim Justice. 2011;39:218–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbart M, Derryberry D. Development of individual differences in temperament. In: Lamb ME, Brown AL, eds. Advances in Developmental Psychology. Vol. 1. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1980:37–86.
   Google Scholar
• Sloboda Z, Glantz M, Tarter R. Revisiting the concepts of risk and protective factors for understanding the etiology and development of substance use and substance use disorders: implications for prevention. Subst Use Misuse. 2012;47:944–962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glantz, M. A developmental psychopathology model of drug abuse vulnerability. In: Glantz M, Pickens R, eds. Vulnerability to Drug Abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1992:389–418.
   Google Scholar
• Zhai Z-W, Kirisci L, Tarter RE, Ridenour TA. Psychological dysregulation during adolescence mediates the association of parent-child attachment in childhood and substance use disorder in adulthood. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2014; 40(1):67–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar