A population-based examination of trends and disparities in medication treatment for opioid use disorders among Medicaid enrollees

References

• Rudd RA, Seth P, David F, Scholl L. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths – United States, 2010–2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(5051):1445–1452. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm655051e1. PMID:28033313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blau M. STAT Forecase: Opioids could kill nearly 500,000 Americans in the next decade. STAT News. 2017. https://www.statnews.com/2017/06/27/opioid-deaths-forecast/. Accessed August 17, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Jones CM, Campopiano M, Baldwin G, McCance-Katz E. National and state treatment need and capacity for opioid agonist medication-assisted treatment. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(8):e55–63. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302664. PMID:26066931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florence CS, Zhou C, Luo F, Xu L. The Economic Burden of Prescription Opioid Overdose, Abuse, and Dependence in the United States, 2013. Med Care. 2016;54(10):901–906. doi:10.1097/MLR.0000000000000625. PMID:27623005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(3):CD002209. PMID:19588333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick RP, Kimber J, Breen C, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008:CD002207. PMID:18425880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assistant Secretary of Policy Evaluation. Issue Brief: Opioid abuse in the US and HHS actions to address opioid-drug related overses and deaths. 2015; https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/107956/ib_OpioidInitiative.pdf. Accessed September 1, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• American Methadone Treatment Association. Methadone Maintenance Program and Patient Census in the US. New York: American Methadone Treatment Association; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien CP. A 50-year-old woman addicted to heroin: Review of treatment of heroin addiction. JAMA. 2008;300(3):314–321. doi:10.1001/jama.300.1.jrr80005. PMID:18594026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark RE, Samnaliev M, Baxter JD, Leung GY. The evidence doesn't justify steps by state Medicaid programs to restrict opioid addiction treatment with buprenorphine. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011;30(8):1425–1433. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0532. PMID:21821560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Determinations Report: A Report on the Physician Waiver Program Established by the Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 (“DATA”). Rockville, MD; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Gryczynski J, Schwartz RP, Salkever DS, Mitchell SG, Jaffe JH. Patterns in admission delays to outpatient methadone treatment in the United States. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2011;41(4):431–439. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2011.06.005. PMID:21821378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigmon SC. Access to treatment for opioid dependence in rural America: challenges and future directions. JAMA Psych. 2014;71(4):359–360. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenblum A, Cleland CM, Fong C, Kayman DJ, Tempalski B, Parrino M. Distance traveled and cross-state commuting to opioid treatment programs in the United States. J Environ Public Health. 2011;2011:948789. doi:10.1155/2011/948789. PMID:21776440.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andrews CM, Shin HC, Marsh JC, Cao D. Client and program characteristics associated with wait time to substance abuse treatment entry. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013;39(1):61–68. doi:10.3109/00952990.2012.694515. PMID:22783953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick AW, Pacula RL, Gordon AJ, et al. Growth in buprenorphine waivers for physicians increased potential access to opioid agonist treatment, 2002–11. Health Aff. 2015;34(6):1028–1034. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2014.1205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The N-SSATS Report: Trends in the Use of Methadone and Buprenorphine at Substance Abuse Treatment Facilities: 2003 to 2011. 2013; http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/NSSATS107/sr107-NSSATS-BuprenorphineTrends.htm. Accessed March 8, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Stein BD, Pacula RL, Gordon AJ, et al. Where is buprenorphine dispensed to treat opioid use disorders? The role of private offices, opioid treatment programs, and substance abuse treatment facilities in urban and rural counties. Milbank Q. 2015;93(3):561–583. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12137. PMID:26350930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews CM, D'Aunno TA, Pollack HA, Friedmann PD. Adoption of evidence-based clinical innovations: The case of buprenorphine use by opioid treatment programs. Med Care Res Rev. 2014;71(1):43–60. doi:10.1177/1077558713503188. PMID:24051897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton A, McLeod C, Luckey B, Kissin W, Sonnefeld L. SAMHSA/ CSAT evaluation of the buprenorphine waiver program: expanding treatment of opioid dependence: initial physician and patient experiences with the adoption of buprenorphine. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen HB, Siegel CE, Case BG, Bertollo DN, DiRocco D, Galanter M. Variation in use of buprenorphine and methadone treatment by racial, ethnic, and income characteristics of residential social areas in New York City. J Behav Health Serv Res. 2013;40(3):367–377. doi:10.1007/s11414-013-9341-3. PMID:23702611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker WC, Fiellin DA, Merrill JO, et al. Opioid use disorder in the United States: Insurance status and treatment access. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2008;94(1–3):207–213. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.11.018. PMID:18222051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adelmann PK. Mental and substance use disorders among Medicaid recipients: Prevalence estimates from two national surveys. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2003;31(2):111–129. doi:10.1023/B:APIH.0000003017.78877.56. PMID:14756195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp MJ. Melnik TA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Poisoning deaths involving opioid analgesics – New York State, 2003–2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(14):377–380. PMID:25879895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes JC, Campana D, Harwell TS, Helgerson SD. High mortality rate of unintentional poisoning due to prescription opioids in adults enrolled in Medicaid compared to those not enrolled in Medicaid in Montana. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;153:346–349. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.032. PMID:26077605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coolen P, Best S, Lima A, Sabel JC, Paulozzi L. Overdose deaths involving prescription opioids among Medicaid enrollees – Washington, 2004–2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009;58(42):1171–1175. PMID:19875978.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frakt AB, Bagley N. Protection or harm? Suppressing substance-use data. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(20):1879–1881. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1501362. PMID:25875196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. Vintage 2009: State Tables. https://www.census.gov/popest/data/historical/2000s/vintage_2009/state.html. Accessed January 26, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Area Health Resource File (AHRF) 2012–2013 Release. May 2013; http://arf.hrsa.gov/download.htm. Accessed May 7, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Huber P. Robust estimation of a location parameter. Ann Math Stat. 1964;35:73–101. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177703732.
   Google Scholar
• Smith J, Medalia C. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60-250. Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2013. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Ducharme L, Abraham A. State policy influence on the early diffusion of buprenorphine in community treatment programs. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2008;3(1):17–27. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-3-17. PMID:18570665.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiellin DA, O'Connor PG. Clinical practice. Office-based treatment of opioid-dependent patients. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(11):817–823. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp013579. PMID:12226153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliva EM, Maisel NC, Gordon AJ, Harris AH. Barriers to use of pharmacotherapy for addiction disorders and how to overcome them. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2011;13(5):374–381. doi:10.1007/s11920-011-0222-2. PMID:21773951.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon AJ, Lo-Ciganic W-H, Cochran G, et al. Patterns and quality of buprenorphine opioid agonist treatment in a large Medicaid program. J Addict Med. 2015;9(6):470–477. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000164. PMID:26517324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook BL, McGuire T, Miranda J. Measuring trends in mental health care disparities, 2000 – 2004. Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58(12):1533–1540. doi:10.1176/ps.2007.58.12.1533. PMID:18048553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine; 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med Care Res Rev. 2000;57(Suppl 1):108–145. doi:10.1177/1077558700057001S06. PMID:11092160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Cook B, McGuire TG, Zuvekas SH. Measuring trends in racial/ ethnic health care disparities. Med Care Res Rev. 2009;66(1):23–48. doi:10.1177/1077558708323607. PMID:18796581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Demler O, Frank RG, et al. Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders, 1990 to 2003. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(24):2515–2523. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa043266. PMID:15958807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alegria M, Chatterji P, Wells K, et al. Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatr Serv. 2008;59(11):1264–1272. doi:10.1176/ps.2008.59.11.1264. PMID:18971402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook BL, Alegria M. Racial-ethnic disparities in substance abuse treatment: The role of criminal history and socioeconomic status. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(11):1273–1281. doi:10.1176/ps.62.11.pss6211_1273. PMID:22211205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler ML, Keyes KM, Narrow WE, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Racial/ethnic disparities in service utilization for individuals with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders in the general population: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(7):1112–1121. doi:10.4088/JCP.v69n0711. PMID:18517286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu LT, Ringwalt CL, Williams CE. Use of substance abuse treatment services by persons with mental health and substance use problems. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(3):363–369. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.54.3.363. PMID:12610245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings JR, Wen H, Ko M. Decline In public substance use disorder treatment centers most serious in counties with high shares of black residents. Health Aff (Millwood). 2016;35(6):1036–1044. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1630. PMID:27269020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings JR, Wen H, Ko M, Druss BG. Race/ethnicity and geographic access to Medicaid substance use disorder treatment facilities in the United States. JAMA Psych. 2014;71(2):190–196. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office of National Drug Control Policy Reauthorization Act of 2006 (ONDCPRA). 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Egan JE, Casadonte P, Gartenmann T, et al. The Physician Clinical Support System-Buprenorphine (PCSS-B): a novel project to expand/improve buprenorphine treatment. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(9):936–941. doi:10.1007/s11606-010-1377-y. PMID:20458550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns RM, Pacula RL, Bauhoff S, et al. Policies related to opioid agonist therapy for opioid use disorders: The evolution of state policies from 2004 to 2013. Subst Abus. 2016;37(1):63–69. doi:10.1080/08897077.2015.1080208. PMID:26566761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health and Human Services. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders; 81 FR 44711; Document number 2016–16120. In: Secondary Department of Health and Human Services, ed. Subsidiary Department of Health and Human Services, trans. Secondary Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders; 81 FR 44711; Document number 2016–16120. https://federalregister.gov/a/2016-16120; 2016: 44711-44739.
   Google Scholar
• Tierney M, Finnell DS, Naegle MA, LaBelle C, Gordon AJ. Advanced practice nurses: Increasing access to opioid treatment by expanding the pool of qualified buprenorphine prescribers. Subst Abus. 2015;36(4):389–392. doi:10.1080/08897077.2015.1101733. PMID:26587696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein BD, Sorbero M, Dick AW, Pacula RL, Burns RM, Gordon AJ. Physician capacity to treat opioid use disorder with buprenorphine-assisted treatment. JAMA. 2016;316(11):1211–1212. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.10542. PMID:27654608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliva EM, Trafton JA, Harris AH, Gordon AJ. Trends in opioid agonist therapy in the Veterans Health Administration: Is supply keeping up with demand? Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013;39(2):103–107. doi:10.3109/00952990.2012.741167. PMID:23421571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones CM, Logan J, Gladden RM, Bohm MK. Vital Signs: Demographic and Substance Use Trends Among Heroin Users – United States, 2002–2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(26):719–725. PMID:26158353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar