Possible roles of oxidative stress, local circulatory failure and nutrition factors in the pathogenesis of hypervirulent influenza: Implications for therapy and global emergency preparedness

References

• Scrimshaw NS, Taylor CE, Gordon JE. Monogr Ser World Health Organ. WHO, Geneva 1968
   Google Scholar
• Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lai S, Zhang G, Lai H, Fletcher MA, et al. High risk of HIV-related mortality is associated with selenium deficiency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997; 15: 370–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friis H (ed.). Micronutrients & HIV infection. CRC series in modern nutrition. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Newsholme P. Why is L-glutamine metabolism important to cells of the immune system in health, postinjury, surgery or infection?. J Nutr 2001; 131(9 Suppl)2515S–2522S, ; discussion 2523S–2524S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newsholme EA, Calder PC. The proposed role of glutamine in some cells of the immune system and speculative consequences for the whole animal. Nutrition 1997; 13: 728–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hall G, MacLean DA, Saltin B, Wagenmakers AJ. Mechanisms of activation of muscle branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase during exercise in man. J Physiol 1996; 494: 899–905
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smyth MJ. Glutathione modulates activation-dependent proliferation of human peripheral blood lymphocyte populations without regulating their activated function. J Immunol 1991; 146: 1921–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gromer S, Arscott LD, Williams CH, Jr, Schirmer RH, Becker K. Human placenta thioredoxin reductase. Isolation of the selenoenzyme, steady state kinetics, and inhibition by therapeutic gold compounds. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 20096–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manevich Y, Fisher AB. Peroxiredoxin 6, a 1-Cys peroxiredoxin, functions in antioxidant defense and lung phospholipid metabolism. Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 38: 1422–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quadrilatero J, Hoffman-Goetz L. N-Acetyl-L-cysteine prevents exercise-induced intestinal lymphocyte apoptosis by maintaining intracellular glutathione levels and reducing mitochondrial membrane depolarization. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 319: 894–901
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill AJ, O'Neill S, Hegarty NJ, Coffey RN, Gibbons N, Brady H, et al. Glutathione depletion-induced neutrophil apoptosis is caspase 3 dependent. Shock 2000; 14: 605–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Utsugi M, Dobashi K, Ishizuka T, Endou K, Hamuro J, Murata Y, et al. c-Jun N-terminal kinase negatively regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-12 production in human macrophages: role of mitogen-activated protein kinase in glutathione redox regulation of IL-12 production. J Immunol 2003; 171: 628–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murata Y, Amao M, Yoneda J, Hamuro J. Intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages directs the Th1 skewing in thioredoxin transgenic mice during aging. Mol Immunol 2002; 38: 747–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen G, Wang SH, Converse CA. Glutathione increases interleukin-2 production in human lymphocytes. Int J Immunopharmacol 1994; 16: 755–60
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He SX, Wu B, Chang XM, Li HX, Qiao W. Effects of selenium on peripheral blood mononuclear cell membrane fluidity, interleukin-2 production and interleukin-2 receptor expression in patients with chronic hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10: 3531–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiremidjian-Schumacher L, Roy M, Wishe HI, Cohen MW, Stotzky G. Supplementation with selenium augments the functions of natural killer and lymphokine-activated killer cells. Biol Trace Elem Res 1996; 52: 227–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy M, Kiremidjian-Schumacher L, Wishe HI, Cohen MW, Stotzky G. Supplementation with selenium and human immune cell functions. I. Effect on lymphocyte proliferation and interleukin 2 receptor expression. Biol Trace Elem Res 1994; 41: 103–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamura J, Kubota K, Murakami H, Sawamura M, Matsushima T, Tamura T, et al. Immunomodulation by vitamin B12: augmentation of CD8+ T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cell activity in vitamin B12-deficient patients by methyl-B12 treatment. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 116: 28–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderpas JB, Dumont JE, Contempre B, Diplock AT. Iodine and selenium deficiency in northern Zaire. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 56: 957–8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno-Reyes R, Mathieu F, Boelaert M, Begaux F, Suetens C, Riviera MT, et al. Selenium and iodine supplementation of rural Tibetan children affected by Kashin-Beck osteoarthropathy. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78: 137–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annegers JF. Protein quality of West African foods. Ecology Food Nutr 1974; 3: 125–30
   Google Scholar
• Annegers JF. Protein-calorie ratio of West African diets and their relationship to protein calorie malnutrition. Ecology Food Nutr 1973; 2: 225–35
   Google Scholar
• Enwezor WO. Sulphur deficiencies in soils of southeastern Nigeria. Geoderma 1976; 15: 401–11
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger WH. Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change. Academic Press, San Diego 1997
   Google Scholar
• Adam R, Russing D, Adams O, Ailyati A, Sik Kim K, Schroten H, et al. Role of human brain microvascular endothelial cells during central nervous system infection. Significance of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in antimicrobial defence and immunoregulation. Thromb Haemost 2005; 94: 341–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venketaraman V, Dayaram YK, Talaue MT, Connell ND. Glutathione and nitrosoglutathione in macrophage defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Immun 2005; 73: 1886–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staal FJ, Ela SW, Roederer M, Anderson MT, Herzenberg LA, Herzenberg LA. Glutathione deficiency and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Lancet 1992; 339: 909–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maehira F, Miyagi I, Eguchi Y. Selenium regulates transcription factor NF-kappaB activation during the acute phase reaction. Clin Chim Acta 2003; 334: 163–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lai S, Zhang H, Lai H, Fletcher MA, et al. High risk of HIV-related mortality is associated with selenium deficiency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997; 15: 370–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nimmerjahn F, Dudziak D, Dirmeier U, Hobom G, Riedel A, Schlee M, et al. Active NF-kappaB signalling is a prerequisite for influenza virus infection. J Gen Virol 2004; 85: 2347–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wurzer WJ, Ehrhardt C, Pleschka S, Berberich-Siebelt F, Wolff T, Walczak H, et al. NF-kappaB-dependent induction of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and Fas/FasL is crucial for efficient influenza virus propagation. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 30931–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suematsu N, Tsutsui H, Wen J, Kang D, Ikeuchi M, Ide T, et al. Oxidative stress mediates tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced mitochondrial DNA damage and dysfunction in cardiac myocytes. Circulation 2003; 107: 1418–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei YH, Lu CY, Wei CY, Ma YS, Lee HC. Oxidative stress in human aging and mitochondrial disease – consequences of defective mitochondrial respiration and impaired antioxidant enzyme system. Chin J Physiol 2001; 44: 1–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banmeyer I, Marchand C, Clippe A, Knoops B. Human mitochondrial peroxiredoxin 5 protects from mitochondrial DNA damages induced by hydrogen peroxide. FEBS Lett 2005; 579: 2327–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganther HE, Hafeman DG, Lawrence RA, Serfass RE, Hoekstra WG. Selenium and glutathione peroxidase in health and disease – a review. Trace elements in human health and disease. Volume II. Essential and toxic elements, AS Prasad, D Oberleas. Academic Press, New York 1976; 165–234
   Google Scholar
• Liu B, Andrieu-Abadie N, Levade T, Zhang P, Obeid LM, Hannun YA. Glutathione regulation of neutral sphingomyelinase in tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced cell death. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 11313–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouaze V, Mirault ME, Carpentier S, Salvayre R, Levade T, Andrieu-Abadie N. Glutathione peroxidase-1 overexpression prevents ceramide production and partially inhibits apoptosis in doxorubicin-treated human breast carcinoma cells. Mol Pharmacol 2001; 60: 488–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Marzio L, Alesse E, Roncaioli P, Muzi P, Marcellini S, Amicosante G, et al. Influence of L-carnitine on CD95 cross-lining-induced apoptosis and ceramide generation in human cell lines: correlation with its effects on purified acidic and neutral sphingomyelinases in vitro. Proc Assoc Am Physicians 1997; 109: 154–63
   Google Scholar
• Liu H, Sidiropoulos P, Song G, Pagliari LJ, Birrer MJ, Stein B, et al. TNF-alpha gene expression in macrophages: regulation by NF-kappa B is independent of c-Jun or C/EBP beta. J Immunol 2000; 164: 4277–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peristeris P, Clark BD, Gatti S, Faggioni R, Mantovani A, Mengozzi M, et al. N-acetylcysteine and glutathione as inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor production. Cell Immunol 1992; 140: 390–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki MH, Akuta T, Akaike T. Nitric oxide-induced nitrative stress involved in microbial pathogenesis. J Pharmacol Sci 2005; 98: 117–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiueh CC, Rauhala P. The redox pathway of S-nitrosoglutathione, glutathione and nitric oxide in cell to neuron communications. Free Radic Res 1999; 31: 641–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jourd'heuil D, Mai CT, Laroux FS, Wink DA, Grisham MB. The reaction of S-nitrosoglutathione with superoxide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 246: 525–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen DE, Belka GK, Du Bois GC. S-Nitrosoglutathione is a substrate for rat alcohol dehydrogenase class III isoenzyme. Biochem J 1998; 331: 659–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sies H, Arteel GE. Interaction of peroxynitrite with selenoproteins and glutathione peroxidase mimics. Free Radic Biol Med 2000; 28: 1451–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takebe G, Yarimizu J, Saito Y, Hayashi T, Nakomura H, Yodoi J, et al. A comparative study on the hydroperoxide and thiol specificity of the glutathione peroxidase family and selenoprotein P. J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 41254–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hink U, Oelze M, Kolb P, Bachschmid M, Zou MH, Daiber A, et al. Role for peroxynitrite in the inhibition of prostacyclin synthase in nitrate tolerance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 1826–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgain RH. The inhibition of PGI2 synthetase within the arterial wall by 15-hydroperoxyarachidonic acid enhances local white platelet thrombosis. Haemostasis 1980; 9: 345–51
   Google Scholar
• Szczeklik A, Gryglewski RJ. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) are carriers for lipid peroxides and inhibit prostacyclin (PGI2) biosynthesis in arteries. Artery 1980; 7: 488–95
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Munzel T, Hink U, Heitzer T, Meinertz T. Role for NADPH/NADH oxidase in the modulation of vascular tone. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 874: 386–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alp NJ, Channon KM. Regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by tetrahydrobiopterin in vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 413–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kase H, Hashikabe Y, Uchida K, Nakanishi N, Hattori Y. Supplementation with tetrahydrobiopterin prevents the cardiovascular effects of angiotensin II-induced oxidative and nitrosative stress. J Hypertens 2005; 23: 1375–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doshi S, McDowell I, Moat S, Lewis M, Goodfellow J. Folate improves endothelial function in patients with coronary heart disease. Clin Chem Lab Med 2003; 41: 1505–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroes ES, van Faassen EE, Yo M, Martasek P, Boer P, Govers R, et al. Folic acid reverts dysfunction of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circ Res 2000; 86: 1129–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell CS, Jackson RM. Mitochondrial complex I, aconitase, and succinate dehydrogenase during hypoxia-reoxygenation: modulation of enzyme activities by MnSOD. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003; 285: L189–98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tretter L, Adam-Vizi V. Inhibition of alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase due to H2O2-induced oxidative stress in nerve terminals. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 893: 412–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radi R, Cassina A, Hodara R. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite interactions with mitochondria. Biol Chem 2002; 383: 401–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiva S, Brookes PS, Patel RP, Anderson PG, Darley-Usmar VM. Nitric oxide partitioning into mitochondrial membranes and the control of respiration at cytochrome c oxidase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98: 7212–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocker R, Bowry VW, Frei B. Ubiquinol-10 protects human low density lipoprotein more efficiently against lipid peroxidation than does alpha-tocopherol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991; 88: 1646–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonvini E, Bougnoux P, Stevenson HC, Miller P, Hoffman T. Activation of the oxidative burst in human monocytes is associated with inhibition of methionine-dependent methylation of neutral lipids and phospholipids. J Clin Invest 1984; 73: 1629–37
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bougnoux P, Bonvini E, Stevenson HC, Markey S, Zatz M, Hoffman T. Identification of ubiquinone-50 as the major methylated nonpolar lipid in human monocytes. Regulation of its biosynthesis via methionine-dependent pathways and relationship to superoxide production. J Biol Chem 1983; 258: 4339–44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boschi-Muller S, Olry A, Antoine M, Branlant G. The enzymology and biochemistry of methionine sulfoxide reductases. Biochim Biophys Acta 2005; 1703: 231–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moskovitz J. Roles of methionine sulfoxide reductases in antioxidant defense, protein regulation and survival. Curr Pharm Des 2005; 11: 1451–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perna AF, Ingrosso D, Satta E, Romano M, Cimmino A, Galletti P, et al. Metabolic consequences of hyperhomocysteinemia in uremia. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38(4 Suppl1)S85–S90
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw S, Jayatilleke E, Herbert V, Colman N. Cleavage of folates during ethanol metabolism. Role of acetaldehyde/xanthine oxidase-generated superoxide. Biochem J 1989; 257: 277–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tungtrongchitr R, Pongpaew P, Soonthornruengyot M, Viroonudomphol D, Vudhivai N, Tungtrongchitr A, et al. Relationship of tobacco smoking with serum vitamin B12, folic acid and haematological indices in healthy adults. Public Health Nutr 2003; 6: 675–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Refsum H, Yajnik CS, Gadkari M, Schneede J, Vollset SE, Orning L, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia and elevated methylmalonic acid indicate a high prevalence of cobalamin deficiency in Asian Indians. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 233–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genova ML, Pich MM, Bernacchia A, Bianchi C, Biondi A, Bovina C, et al. The mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species in relation to aging and pathology. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1011: 86–100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lou MF. Redox regulation in the lens. Prog Retin Eye Res 2003; 22: 657–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Klaveren RJ, Demedts M, Nemery B. Cellular glutathione turnover in vitro, with emphasis on type II pneumocytes. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 1392–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore PS, Marfin AA, Quenemoen LE, Gessner BD, Ayub YS, Miller DS, et al. Mortality rates in displaced and resident populations of central Somalia during 1992 famine. Lancet 1993; 341: 935–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tumpey TM, Basler CF, Aguilar PV, Zeng H, Solorzano A, Swayne DE, et al. Characterization of the reconstructed 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic virus. Science 2005; 310: 77–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichikawa H, Kokura S, Aw TY. Role of endothelial mitochondria in oxidant production and modulation of neutrophil adherence. J Vasc Res 2004; 41: 432–44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddox JF, Aherne KM, Reddy CC, Sordillo LM. Increased neutrophil adherence and adhesion molecule mRNA expression in endothelial cells during selenium deficiency. J Leukoc Biol 1999; 65: 658–64
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moutet M, d'Alessio P, Malette P, Devaux V, Chaudiere J. Glutathione peroxidase mimics prevent TNFalpha- and neutrophil-induced endothelial alterations. Free Radic Biol Med 1998; 25: 270–81
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlahopoulos S, Boldogh I, Casola A, Brasier AR. Nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent induction of interleukin-8 gene expression by tumor necrosis factor alpha: evidence for an antioxidant sensitive activating pathway distinct from nuclear translocation. Blood 1999; 94: 1878–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hou J, Wu Y, Ling Y. [Modulation of the inflammatory response through complement-neutrophil activation feedback mechanism with selenium and vitamin E.] Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao 2000;22:580–4 (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Xu M, Hou J, Wu Y, Ling Y. [Study on the modulation of the inflammatory response in mouse hepatic vasculitis with sodium selenite and vitamin E antioxidants.] Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi 2000;29:279–83 (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Hou JC, Jiang ZY, He ZF. [Inhibitory effect of selenium on complement activation and its clinical significance.] Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 1993;73:645–6, 699 (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Hou JC. Inhibitory effect of selenite and other antioxidants on complement-mediated tissue injury in patients with epidemic hemorrhagic fever. Biol Trace Elem Res 1997; 56: 125–30
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esworthy RS, Yang L, Frankel PH, Chu FF. Epithelium-specific glutathione peroxidase, Gpx2, is involved in the prevention of intestinal inflammation in selenium-deficient mice. J Nutr 2005; 135: 740–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayman MP. Dietary selenium: time to act. BMJ 1997; 314: 387–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statens Livsmedelsverk. Befolkningens kostvanor och näringsintag i Sverige 1989. Metod- och resultatanalys. Livsmedelsverkets förlag, Uppsala 1994
   Google Scholar
• Biasetti M, Dawson R, Jr. Effects of sulfur containing amino acids on iron and nitric oxide stimulated catecholamine oxidation. Amino Acids 2002; 22: 351–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messina SA, Dawson R, Jr. Attenuation of oxidative damage to DNA by taurine and taurine analogs. Adv Exp Med Biol 2000; 483: 355–67
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutteridge JM, Nagy I, Maidt L, Floyd RA. ADP-iron as a Fenton reactant: radical reactions detected by spin trapping, hydrogen abstraction, and aromatic hydroxylation. Arch Biochem Biophys 1990; 277: 422–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldschmidt VM. Geochemistry. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1954
   Google Scholar
• Finnegan NM, Redmond HP, Bouchier-Hayes DJ. Taurine attenuates recombinant interleukin-2-activated, lymphocyte-mediated endothelial cell injury. Cancer 1998; 82: 186–99
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilska A, Wlodek L. Lipoic acid – the drug of the future?. Pharmacol Rep 2005; 57: 570–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ames BN. A role for supplements in optimizing health: the metabolic tune-up. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004; 423: 227–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiter RJ, Tan DX, Pappolla MA. Melatonin relieves the neural oxidative burden that contributes to dementias. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1035: 179–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez C, Mayo JC, Sainz RM, Antolin I, Herrera F, Martin V, et al. Regulation of antioxidant enzymes: a significant role for melatonin. J Pineal Res 2004; 36: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leon J, Acuna-Castroviejo D, Escames G, Tan DX, Reiter RJ. Melatonin mitigates mitochondrial malfunction. J Pineal Res 2005; 38: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrillo-Vico A, Garcia-Maurino S, Calvo JR, Guerrero JM. Melatonin counteracts the inhibitory effect of PGE2 on IL-2 production in human lymphocytes via its mt1 membrane receptor. FASEB J 2003; 17: 755–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lissoni P, Chilelli M, Villa S, Cerizza L, Tancini G. Five years survival in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with chemotherapy alone or chemotherapy and melatonin: a randomized trial. J Pineal Res 2003; 35: 12–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Z, Araghi-Niknam M, Liang B, Inserra P, Ardestani SK, Jiang S, et al. Prevention of immune dysfunction and vitamin E loss by dehydroepiandrosterone and melatonin supplementation during murine retrovirus infection. Immunology 1999; 96: 291–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lissoni P, Vigore L, Rescaldani R, Rovelli F, Brivio F, Giani L, et al. Neuroimmunotherapy with low-dose subcutaneous interleukin-2 plus melatonin in AIDS patients with CD4 cell number below 200/mm3: a biological phase-II study. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 1995; 9: 155–8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osterholm MT. Preparing for the next pandemic. Foreign Affairs 2005; 84: 24–37
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar