Comparison of the Efficacy of Free Residual Chlorine and Monochloramine against Biofilms in Model and Full Scale Cooling Towers

References

• Allison , DG . 2003 . The biofilm matrix . Biofouling , 19 : 139 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomfield , SF , Arthur , M , Begun , K and Patel , H . 1993 . Comparative testing of disinfectants using proposed European surface test methods . Lett Appl Microbiol , 10 : 287 – 294 .
   Google Scholar
• Bott , TR . 1998 . Techniques for reducing the amount of biocide necessary to counteract the effects of biofilm growth in cooling tower water systems . Appl Therm Eng , 18 : 1059 – 1066 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campanac , C , Pineau , L , Payard , A , Baziard-Mouyset , G and Roques , C . 2002 . Interactions between biocide cationic agent and bacterial biofilms . Antimicrob Agents Chemother , 46 : 1469 – 1474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campos , C , Loret , JF , Cooper , AJ and Kelly , RF . 2003 . Disinfection of domestic water systems for Legionella pneumophila . J Water Supply , 52 : 341 – 354 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloete , TE . 2003 . Biofouling control in industrial water systems: what we know and what we need to know . Mater Corros , 54 : 520 – 526 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Codony , F , Morato , J , Ribas , F and Mas , J . 2002 . Effect of chlorine, biodegradable dissolved organic carbon and suspended bacteria on biofilm development in drinking water systems . J Basic Microbiol , 42 : 311 – 319 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costerton , JW , Cheng , KJ , Geesey , GG , Ladd , TI , Nickel , JC , Dasgupta , M and Marrie , TJ . 1987 . Bacterial biofilms in nature and disease . Annu Rev Microbiol , 41 : 435 – 464 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotuk , A . 1998 . The control of Legionnaires' disease in water distribution systems . KÜKEM Biotechnol , 21 : 13 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Donlan R Murga R Carpenter J Brown E Besser R Fields B 2002 Monochloramine disinfection of biofilm-associated Legionella pneumophila in a potable water model system In : Marre R, Kwaik Y A, Fields B (eds) Legionella, ASM Press, Washington DC pp 406 – 410
   Google Scholar
• Dubois , M , Gilles , KA , Hamilton , JK , Rebers , PA and Smith , F . 1956 . Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances . Anal Chem , 28 : 350 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EPA 2003 National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants for semiconductor manufacturing 40 CFR Part 63, RIN 2060-AG93, Federal Register 68 27913 27931
   Google Scholar
• Flemming , HC . 2003 . Role and levels of real-time monitoring for successful anti-fouling strategies – an overview . Water Sci Technol , 47 : 1 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fliermans , CB , Bettinger , GE and Fynsk , AW . 1982 . Treatment of cooling tower systems containing high levels of Legionella pneumophila . Water Res , 16 : 903 – 909 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnon , GA and Slawson , RM . 1999 . An efficient biofilm removal method for bacterial cells exposed to drinking water . J Microbiol Methods , 34 : 203 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton , WA . 2003 . Microbially influenced corrosion as a model system for the study of metal microbe interactions: a unifying electron transfer hypothesis . Biofouling , 19 : 65 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris A 2000 Problems associated with biofilms in cooling tower systems In: Keevil C V, Godfree A, Holt D, Dow C (eds) Biofilms in the Aquatic Environment, Springer-Verlag, NY, USA pp 139 – 144
   Google Scholar
• Kim , BR , Anderson , JE , Mueller , SA , Gaines , WA and Kendall , AM . 2002 . Literature review – efficacy of various disinfectants against Legionella in water systems . Water Res , 36 : 4433 – 4444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kool , JL , Carpenter , JC and Fields , B . 1999 . Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease . Lancet , 353 : 272 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeChevallier , MW , Cawthon , CD and Lee , RG . 1988 . Factors promoting survival of bacteria in chlorinated water supplies . Appl Environ Microbiol , 54 : 649 – 654 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeChevallier , MW , Lowry , CD , Ramon , GL and Gibbon , DL . 1993 . Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria . AWWA , 22 : 111 – 123 .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , K . 2001 . Riddle of biofilm resistance . Antimicrob Agents Chemother , 45 : 999 – 1007 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , EY , Yu , VL , Vidic , RD and States , SJ . 2000 . Discussion of monochloramine and Legionnaires' disease . AWWA , 92 : 88 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu , W , Kiene , L and Levi , Y . 1999 . Chlorine demand of biofilms in water distribution systems . Water Res , 33 : 827 – 835 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ludensky , M . 2003 . Control and monitoring of biofilms in industrial applications . Int Biodeterior Biodegr , 51 : 255 – 263 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macdonald , R and Brözel , VS . 2000 . Community analysis of bacterial biofilms in a simulated recirculating cooling-water system by fluorescent in situ hybridization with rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes . Water Res , 34 : 2439 – 2446 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melo , LF and Bott , TR . 1997 . Biofouling in water systems . Exp Therm Fluid Sci , 14 : 375 – 381 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Momba , MNB and Binda , MA . 2002 . Combining chlorination and chloramination processes for the inhibition of biofilm formation in drinking surface water system models . J Appl Microbiol , 92 : 641 – 648 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Momba , MNB , Cloete , TE , Venter , SN and Kfir , R . 1999 . Examination of the behaviour of Escherichia coli in biofilms established in laboratory-scale units receiving chlorinated and chloraminated water . Water Res , 33 : 2937 – 2940 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norton , CD and LeChevallier , MW . 2000 . A pilot study of bacteriological population changes through potable water treatment and distribution . Appl Environ Microbiol , 66 : 268 – 276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storey , MV and Ashbolt , NJ . 2002 . A comparison of methods and models for the analysis of water distribution pipe biofilms . Water Sci Technol , 2 : 73 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Wende , E , Characklis , WG and Smith , DB . 1989 . Biofilms and bacterial drinking water quality . Water Res , 23 : 1313 – 1322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vikesland , PJ , Ozekin , K and Valentine , RL . 2001 . Monochloramine decay in model and distribution system waters . Water Res , 35 : 1766 – 1776 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto , H , Sugiura , M , Kusunoki , E , Ezaki , T , Ikedo , M and Yabuuchi , E . 1992 . Factors stimulating propagation of legionellae in cooling tower water . Appl Environ Microbiol , 58 : 1394 – 1397 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar