Destination Images of Africa Reflected in Social Media Photographs

References

• Akama, J. 2002. Introduction. In Cultural tourism in Africa: Strategies for the new millennium, eds. J. Akama and P. Sterry, 13–8. London, UK: Atlas.
   Google Scholar
• Akama, J. S. 1996. Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya. Tourism Management 17 (8):567–74. doi:10.1016/S0261-5177(96)00077-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albers, P. C., and W. R. James. 1988. Travel photography: A methodological approach. Annals of Tourism Research 15 (1):134–58. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(88)90076-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allain, S. 2019. Mining Flickr: A method for expanding the known distribution of invasive species. Herpetological Bulletin 148 (Summer 2019):11–4. doi:10.33256/hb148.1114.
   Google Scholar
• Andrades-Caldito, L., M. Sánchez-Rivero, and J. I. Pulido-Fernández. 2013. Differentiating competitiveness through tourism image assessment: An application to Andalusia (Spain). Journal of Travel Research 52 (1):68–81. doi:10.1177/0047287512451135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arreola, D. 2013. Postcards from the Rio Bravo border: Picturing the place, placing the picture, 1900s-1950s. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
   Google Scholar
• Avraham, E., and E. Ketter. 2017. Destination image repair while combatting crises: Tourism marketing in Africa. Tourism Geographies 19 (5):780–800. doi:10.1080/14616688.2017.1357140.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awaritefe, O. D. 2005. Image difference between culture and nature destination visitors in tropical Africa: Case study of Nigeria. Current Issues in Tourism 8 (5):363–93. doi:10.1080/13683500508668224.
   Google Scholar
• Balmford, A., J. M. Green, M. Anderson, J. Beresford, C. Huang, R. Naidoo, M. Walpole, and A. Manica. 2015. Walk on the wild side: Estimating the global magnitude of visits to protected areas. PLoS Biology 13 (2):e1002074. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baloglu, S., and K. W. McCleary. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research 26 (4):868–97. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00030-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baloglu, S., and M. Mangaloglu. 2001. Tourism destination images of Turkey, Egypt, Greece, and Italy as perceived by US-based tour operators and travel agents. Tourism Management 22 (1):1–9. doi:10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00030-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balomenou, N., and B. Garrod. 2019. Photographs in tourism research: Prejudice, power, performance and participant-generated images. Tourism Management 70:201–17. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2018.08.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, K. 2009. MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R package, version 0.12.2. http://r-forge.r-project.org/projects/mumin/
   Google Scholar
• Beerli, A., and J. D. Martin. 2004. Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research 31 (3):657–81. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2004.01.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, B. L. 2004. Methods for the social sciences. Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
   Google Scholar
• Binder, D., C. Lukas, and Z. Szabó. 2017. The impact of user-generated content on Facebook on travel destination choices: A comparison of Austrian tourism students and non-tourism students. Forum on Economics and Business 20 (131):56–77.
   Google Scholar
• Bordelon, L. A., and S. L. Ferreira. 2017. Tourist photographs and destination imagery on social media: Reading the Stellenbosch Winelands through a tourist lens. Tourism Review International 21 (3):317–29. doi:10.3727/154427217X15022104437765.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, D., and W. Hunter. 2004. Democracy and human capital formation – Education spending in Latin America, 1980 to 1997. Comparative Political Studies 37 (7):842–64. doi:10.1177/0010414004266870.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley, R. 2012. Sustainable tourism: Research and reality. Annals of Tourism Research 39 (2):528–46. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2012.02.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnham, K. P., and D. R. Anderson. 2002. Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information‐theoretic approach, 2nd edition. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Camprubi, R., J. Guia, and J. Comas. 2013. The new role of tourists in destination image formation. Current Issues in Tourism 16 (2):203–9. doi:10.1080/13683500.2012.733358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castley, J. G., A. Bennett, and C. M. Pickering. 2013. Wildlife visual imagery: Do pictures used to promote destinations online match on‐site species visibility at two geographic destinations? Geographical Research 51 (1):59–70. doi:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2012.00767.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaisumpunsakul, W., and P. Pholphirul. 2018. Does international trade promote international tourism demand? Evidence from Thailand’s trading partners. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences 39 (3):393–400. doi:10.1016/j.kjss.2017.06.007.
   Google Scholar
• Chimuka, G. 2019. Western hysteria over killing of Cecil the lion! Othering from the Zimbabwean gaze. Tourist Studies 19 (3):336–56. doi:10.1177/1468797619832316.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, K. R., and R. N. Gorley. 2006. Primer v6 user manual/tutorial. Plymouth: Primer-E Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Dexter, E., G. Rollwagen‐Bollens, and S. M. Bollens. 2018. The trouble with stress: A flexible method for the evaluation of nonmetric multidimensional scaling. Limnology and Oceanography: Methods 16 (7):434–43. doi:10.1002/lom3.10257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Minin, E., I. Fraser, R. Slotow, and D. C. MacMillan. 2013. Understanding heterogenous preference of tourists for big game species: Implications for conservation and management. Animal Conservation 16 (3):249–10. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00595.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flickr. 2018. Data on number of photographs. https://www.flickr.com (accessed December 17, 2018).
   Google Scholar
• Gartner, W. C. 1994. Image formation process. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 2 (2–3):191–216. doi:10.1300/J073v02n02_12.
   Google Scholar
• Hambira, W. L. 2017. Botswana tourism operators’ and policy makers’ perceptions and responses to the tourism-climate change nexus: Vulnerabilities and adaptations to climate change in Maun and Tshabong areas. Nordia Geographical Publications 46 (2):59.
   Google Scholar
• Hammett, D. 2014. Tourism images and British media representations of South Africa. Tourism Geographies 16 (2):221–3. doi:10.1080/14616688.2012.762688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausmann, A., T. Toivonen, R. Slotow, H. Tenkanen, A. Moilanen, V. Heikinheimo, and E. Di Minin. 2018. Social media data can be used to understand tourists’ preferences for nature‐based experiences in protected areas. Conservation Letters 11 (1):e12343. doi:10.1111/conl.12343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausmann, A., T. Toivonen, V. Heikinheimo, H. Tenkanen, R. Slotow, and E. Di Minin. 2017. Social media reveal that charismatic species are not the main attractor of ecotourists to sub-Saharan protected areas. Scientific Reports 7 (1):763. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-00858-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikinheimo, V., E. Di Minin, H. Tenkanen, A. Hausmann, J. Erkkonen, and T. Toivonen. 2017. User-generated geographic information for visitor monitoring in a national park: A comparison of social media data and visitor survey. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 6 (3):85. doi:10.3390/ijgi6030085
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoogendoorn, G., and C. M. Rogerson. 2016. New perspectives on Southern African tourism research. Tourism 64 (4):355–7.
   Google Scholar
• Hüncke, A., and S. Koot. 2012. The presentation of Bushmen in cultural tourism: Tourists’ images of Bushmen and the tourism provider’s presentation of (Hai//om) Bushmen at Tree sleeper Camp. Critical Arts 26 (5):671–89. doi:10.1080/02560046.2012.744722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, O. 2003. Photography and travel brochures: The circle of representation. Tourism Geographies 5 (3):305–28. doi:10.1080/14616680309715.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassean, H., and R. Gassita. 2013. Exploring tourists push and pull motivations to visit Mauritius as a tourist destination. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 2 (3):1–13. doi:10.26215/tourismos.v8i2.352
   Google Scholar
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2018. Statistical abstract. https://www.knbs.or.ke/statistical-abstract-2018/ (accessed April 26, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Kim, H., and S. Stepchenkova. 2015. Effect of tourist photographs on attitudes towards destination: Manifest and latent content. Tourism Management 49:29–41. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2015.02.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H., and S. L. Richardson. 2003. Motion picture impacts on destination images. Annals of Tourism Research 30 (1):216–37. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(02)00062-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. J., M.-H. Chen, and S. S. Jang. 2006. Tourism expansion and economic development: The case of Taiwan. Tourism Management 27 (5):925–33. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2005.05.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwanisai, G., and S. Vengesayi. 2016. Destination attributes and overall destination satisfaction in Zimbabwe. Tourism Analysis 21 (1):17–28. doi:10.3727/108354216X14537459508775.
   Google Scholar
• Lai, K., and X. Li. 2016. Tourism destination image: Conceptual problems and definitional solutions. Journal of Travel Research 55 (8):1065–80. doi:10.1177/0047287515619693.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepp, A., H. Gibson, and C. Lane. 2011. Image and perceived risk: A study of Uganda and its official tourism website. Tourism Management 32 (3):675–84. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2010.05.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litvin, S. W., R. E. Goldsmith, and B. Pan. 2008. Electronic word-of-mouth in hospitality and tourism management. Tourism Management 29 (3):458–68. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.05.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mak, A. H. 2017. Online destination image: Comparing national tourism organisation’s and tourists’ perspectives. Tourism Management 60:280–97. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangachena, J. R., and C. M. Pickering. 2021. Why are some animals popular with wildlife tourists: Insights from South Africa. Journal of Ecotourism 2021:1–17. doi:10.1080/14724049.2021.2019261.
   Google Scholar
• Matiza, T., and O. A. Oni. 2014. Managing the tourist destination image: The case of Africa. Tourism 62 (4):397–406. https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/194855.
   Google Scholar
• Mayo, E. 1975. Tourism and the national parks: A psychographic and attitudinal study. Journal of Travel Research 14 (1):14–21. doi:10.1177/004728757501400103.
   Google Scholar
• Mir-Gual, M.,. G. X. Pons, J. A. Martín-Prieto, and A. Rodríguez-Perea. 2015. A critical view of the Blue Flag beaches in Spain using environmental variables. Ocean & Coastal Management 105:106–15. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.01.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moscardo, G. 2011. Exploring social representations of tourism planning: Issues for governance. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 19 (4–5):423–36. doi:10.1080/09669582.2011.558625.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mossaz, A., R. C. Buckley, and J. G. Castley. 2015. Ecotourism contributions to conservation of African big cats. Journal for Nature Conservation 28:112–8. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2015.09.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutanga, N. C., S. Vengesayi, E. Gandiwa, and N. Muboko. 2015. Community perceptions of wildlife conservation and tourism: A case study of communities adjacent to four protected areas in Zimbabwe. Tropical Conservation Science 8 (2):564–82. doi:10.1177/194008291500800218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidoo, R., L. C. Weaver, G. Stuart‐Hill, and J. Tagg. 2011. Effect of biodiversity on economic benefits from communal lands in Namibia. Journal of Applied Ecology 48 (2):310–6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01955.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi, S., A. Jaju, and S. Chaudhury. 2016. Search result diversification in Flickr. Paper presented at 8th International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks, Bangalore, India, (COMSNETS) 5–10 January 2016. doi:10.1109/COMSNETS.2016.7439940.
   Google Scholar
• Pan, S., J. Lee, and H. Tsai. 2014. Travel photographs: Motivations, image dimensions, and affective qualities of places. Tourism Management 40:59–69. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2013.05.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadimitriou, D., K. Kaplanidou, and A. Apostolopoulou. 2018. Destination image components and word-of-mouth intentions in urban tourism: A multigroup approach. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 42 (4):503–27. doi:10.1177/1096348015584443.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perman, L., and K. Mikinac. 2014. Effectiveness of education processes in tourism and hospitality in the Republic of Croatia. Paper presented at 22nd Biennial International Congress in Tourism and Hospitality Industry: New Trends in Tourism and Hospitality Management, Opatija, Croatia. Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management 8–9 May 2014. http://ideas.repec.org/p/tho/iscthi/confpap05.html.
   Google Scholar
• Pickering, C., A. Barros, C. Walden-Schreiner, and S. Rossi. 2020. Using social media images and text to examine how tourists view and value the highest mountain in Australia. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 29:100252. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2019.100252.
   Google Scholar
• Pickering, C., S. D. Rossi, A. Hernando, and A. Barros. 2018. Current knowledge and future research directions for the monitoring and management of visitors in recreational and protected areas. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 21: 10–18. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2017.11.002
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team. 2020. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Rossi, S., A. Barros, C. Walden-Schreiner, and C. M. Pickering. 2020. Using social media images to assess ecosystem services in a remote protected area in the Argentinean Andes. Ambio 49 (6):1146–15. doi:10.1007/s13280-019-01268-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saarinen, J., and C. M. Rogerson. 2015. Setting cultural tourism in Southern Africa. Nordic Journal of African Studies 24 (3–4):14.
   Google Scholar
• SANParks. 2018. Annual report. https://www.sanparks.org/about/annual/ (accessed March 22, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A., and M. Anderson. 2018. Social media use in 2018. Pew Research Center, USA. http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/ (accessed July 23, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Statista. 2019. Number of social network users worldwide from 2010 to 2021 (in billions). https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/ (accessed July 24, 2019).
   Google Scholar
• Stepchenkova, S., and F. Zhan. 2013. Visual destination images of Peru: Comparative content analysis of DMO and user-generated photography. Tourism Management 36:590–601. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.08.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taecharungroj, V., and B. Mathayomchan. 2021. Traveller‐generated destination image: Analysing Flickr photos of 193 countries worldwide. International Journal of Tourism Research 23 (3):417–441. doi:10.1002/jtr.2415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, C. H., X. W. Chong, and S. B. Ho. 2017. Significance of safety and security issues on tourism industry in Malaysia. Science International 29 (2):471–475.
   Google Scholar
• Tasci, A. D., and W. C. Gartner. 2007. Destination image and its functional relationships. Journal of Travel Research 45 (4):413–425. doi:10.1177/0047287507299569.
   Google Scholar
• Tegegne, W. A., Moyle, B. D., and S. Becken. 2018. A qualitative system dynamics approach to understanding destination image. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 8:14–22. doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teles da Mota, V., and C. Pickering. 2020. Using social media to assess nature-based tourism: Current research and future trends. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 30:100295. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2020.100295.
   Google Scholar
• Tenkanen, H., E. Di Minin, V. Heikinheimo, A. Hausmann, M. Herbst, L. Kajala, and T. Toivonen. 2017. Instagram, Flickr, or Twitter: Assessing the usability of social media data for visitor monitoring in protected areas. Scientific Reports 7 (1):17615. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18007-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tranmer, M., and M. Elliot. 2008. Multiple linear regression. Cathie Marsh Centre for Census and Survey Research (CCSR) 5 (5):1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Twining-Ward, L., W. Li, H. Bhammar, and E. Wright. 2018. Supporting sustainable livelihoods through wildlife tourism. Tourism for Development. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Urry, J. 1990. The tourist gaze. London, UK: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Wengel, Y., L. Ma, Y. Ma, M. Apollo, K. Maciuk, and A. S. Ashton. 2022. The TikTok effect on destination development: Famous overnight, now what? Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 37:100458. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2021.100458.
   Google Scholar
• Willemen, L., A. J. Cottam, E. G. Drakou, and N. D. Burgess. 2015. Using social media to measure the contribution of Red List species to the nature-based tourism potential of African protected areas. PloS One 10 (6):e0129785. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woosnam, K. M., D. Stylidis, and M. Ivkov. 2020. Explaining conative destination image through cognitive and affective destination image and emotional solidarity with residents. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 28 (6):917–19. doi:10.1080/09669582.2019.1708920.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2018. World bank report. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/630671538158537244/The-World-Bank-Annual-Report-2018 (accessed April 26, 2019)
   Google Scholar
• World Travel and Tourism Council. 2018. Travel and tourism: Global economic impact and issues 2018. London, UK: World Travel and Tourism Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Zambia Tourism Statistical Digest. 2018. Tourism statistics. https://www.mota.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=65 (accessed May 04, 2020)
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, H., X. Fu, L. A. Cai, and L. Lu. 2014. Destination image and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis. Tourism Management 40:213–223. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2013.06.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, K., Y. Chen, and C. Li. 2019. Discovering the tourists' behaviors and perceptions in a tourism destination by analysing photographs' visual content with a computer deep learning model: The case of Beijing. Tourism Management 75:595–6. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2019.07.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar