Publication Cover
Inhalation Toxicology
International Forum for Respiratory Research
Volume 19, 2007 - Issue 5
1,037
Views
146
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Evidence of Health Impacts of Sulfate-and Nitrate-Containing Particles in Ambient Air

, , , , , & show all
Pages 419-449 | Received 24 Jul 2006, Accepted 02 Nov 2006, Published online: 06 Oct 2008

REFERENCES

  • Abbey D. E., Nishino N., McDonnell W. F., Burchette R. J., Knutsen S. F., Beeson W. L., Yang J. X. Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants and lung function in nonsmokers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1999; 159: 373–382
  • Amdur M. O., Corn M. The irritant potency of zinc ammonium sulfate of different particle sizes. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1963; 24: 326–333
  • Amdur M. O., Chen I. C., Guty J., Lam H. F., Miller P. D. Speciation and pulmonary effects of acidic SO2 formed on the surface of ultrafine zinc oxide aerosols. Atmos. Environ. 1988; 22: 557–560
  • Amdur M. O., Chen L. C. Furnace-generated acid aerosols: speciation and pulmonary effects. Environ. Health Perspect. 1989; 79: 147–150
  • Anderson H. R., Bremer S. A., Atkinson R. W., Harrison R. W., Walters S. Particulate matter and daily mortality and hospital admissions in the west midlands conurbation of the United Kingdom: Association with fine and coarse particles, black smoke and sulphate. Occup. Environ. Med. 2001; 58: 504–510
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological profile for nickel. 2005, Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp15.html
  • Barnett A. G., Williams G. M., Schwartz J., Best T. L., Neller A. H., Petroeschevsky A. L., Simpson R. W. The effects of air pollution on hospitalizations for cardiovascular disease in elderly people in Australian and New Zealand cities. Environ. Health Pespect. 2006; 114(7)1018–1023
  • Bassett M. E., Seinfeld J. H. Atmospheric equilibrium model of sulfate and nitrate aerosols—II. particle size analysis. Atmos. Environ. 1984; 18: 1163–1170
  • Batalha J. R. F., Saldiva P. H. N., Clarke R. W., Coull B. A., Stearns R. C., Lawrence J., Murthy G. G. K., Koutrakis P., Godleski J. J. Concentrated ambient air particles induce vasoconstriction of small pulmonary arteries in rats. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002; 110: 1191–1197
  • Brook J. R., Dann T. F., Burnett R. T. The relationship among TSP, PM10, PM2.5, and inorganic constituents of atmospheric particulate matter at multiple Canadian locations. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 1997; 47: 2–19
  • Burnett R. T., Cakmak S., Brook J. R., Krewski D. The role of particulate size and chemistry in the association between summertime ambient air pollution and hospitalization for cardiorespiratory diseases. Environ. Health Perspect. 1997; 105: 614–620
  • Burnett R. T., Steib D., Brook J. R., Cakmak S., Dales R., Raizenne M., Vincent R., Dann T. Associations between short-term changes in nitrogen dioxide and mortality in Canadian cities. Arch. Environ. Health 2004; 59: 228–236
  • Burns D. M., Shanks T. G., Choi W., Thun M. J., Heath C. W., Garfinkel L. The American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study I: 12-Year follow-up of 1 million men and women. Smoking & tobacco control. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 1996; 113–169, Monograph
  • Cass G. R., Hughes L. A., Bhave P., Kleeman M. J., Allen J. O., Salmon L. G. The chemical composition of atmospheric ultrafine particles. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 2000; 358: 2581–2592
  • Cassee F. R., Dormans J. A. M. A., van Loveren H., van Bree L., Rombout P. J. A. Toxicity of ambient particulate matter: II. acute toxicity study in asthmatic mice following 3-day exposure to fine ammonium ferrosulfate, a model compound for secondary aerosol fraction of PM10. RIVM, Bilthoven, The Netherlands 1998, Report no. 65001 0011
  • Clarke R. W., Coull B., Reinisch U., Catalano P., Killingsworth C. R., Koutrakis P., Kavouras I., Murthy G. G. K., Lawrence J., Lovett E., Wolfson J. M., Verrier R. L., Godleski J. J. Inhaled concentrated ambient particles are associated with hematologic and bronchoalveolar lavage changes in canines. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000; 108: 1179–1187
  • Clyde M. Model uncertainty and health effect studies for particulate matter. Environmetrics. 2000; 11: 745–763
  • Costa D. L., Dreher K. L. Bioavailable transition metals in particulate matter mediate cardiopulmonary injury in healthy and compromised animal models. Environ. Health Perspect. Suppl. 1997; 105: 1053–1060, suppl 5
  • Costa D. L. PM associated metals: mechanisms to people—Is there coherence. Presentation at 2006 Health Effects Institute Annual Conference April. San Francisco, CA 2006
  • Dockery D. W., Luttmann-Gibson H., Rich D. Q., Link M. S., Mittleman M. A., Gold D. R., Koutrakis P., Schwartz J. D., Verrier R. L. Association of air pollution with increased incidence of ventricular tachyarrhythmias recorded by implanted cardioverter debrillators. Environ. Health Perspect 2005; 113: 670–674
  • Dockery D. W., Pope C. A., Xu X., Spengler J. D., Ware J. H., Fay M. E., Ferris B. G., Speizer F. E. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. N. Engl. J. Med 1993; 329: 1753–1759
  • Doll R., Peto R., Borehan J., Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 Years' of observations on male British doctors. Br. Med. J. 2004; 328: 1519
  • Dominici F., Zeger S. L., Samet J. M. Combining evidence on air pollution and daily mortality from the 20 largest U.S. cities: A hierarchical modeling strategy. J. R. Stat. Soc. 2000; 163: 263–302
  • Dominici F., McDermott A., Daniels M., Zeger S. L., Samet J. M. Revised analysis of the National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study, Part II: mortality among residents of 90 cities. Revised analyses of time-series of air pollution and health: Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston 2003; 9–23
  • Dreher K. L. Particulate matter physicochemistry and toxicology: In search of causality—A critical perspective. Inhal. Toxicol. 2000; 12: 45–57, suppl. 3
  • Dubowsky S. D., Suh H., Schwartz J., Coull B. A., Gold D. R. Diabetes, obesity, and hypertension may enhance associations between air pollution and markers of systemic inflammation. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006; 114: 992–998
  • Ebelt S. T., Petkau A. J., Vedal S., Fisher T. V., Brauer M. Exposure of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients to particulate matter: Relationships between personal and ambient air concentrations. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000; 50: 1081–1094
  • Enstrom J. E. Fine particulate air pollution and total mortality among elderly Californians, 1973–2002. Inhal. Toxicol. 2005; 17: 803–816
  • Enstrom J. E. Response to “a critique of ‘fine particulate air pollution and total mortality among elderly Californians, 1973–2002’” by Bert Brunekreef, PhD, and Gerald Hock, PhD. Inhal. Toxicol. 2006; 18: 509–514
  • Fairley D. Daily mortality and air pollution in Santa Clara County, California: 1989–1996. Environ. Health Perspect. 1999; 107: 637–641
  • Fairley D. Mortality and air pollution for Santa Clara County, California, 1989–1996. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health, Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA 2003; 97–106
  • Finlayson-Pitts B. J., Pitts J. N. Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 2000
  • Friedlander S. K., Yeh E. K. The submicron atmospheric aerosol as a carrier of reactive chemical species: case of peroxides. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 1998; 13: 416–420
  • Gao S., Ng N. L., Keywood M., Varutbangkul V., Bahreini R., Nenes A., He J., Yoo K. Y., Beauchamp J. L., Hodyss R. P., Flagan R. C., Seinfeld J. H. Particle phase acidity and oligomer formation in secondary organic aerosol. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004; 38: 6582–6589
  • Ghio A. J., Stoneheurner J., McGee J. K., Kinsey J. S. Sulfate content correlates with iron concentration in ambient air pollution particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 1999; 11: 293–307
  • Ghio A. J., Kim C., Devlin R. B. Concentrated ambient air particles induce mild pulmonary inflammation in healthy human volunteers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000; 162: 981–988
  • Goldberg M. S., Burnett R. T., Yale J.-F., Valois M.-F., Brook J. R. Associations between ambient air pollution and daily mortality among persons with diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Environ. Res. 2006; 100: 255–267
  • Goldberg M. S., Burnett R. T., Bailer J. C., III, Brook J., Bonvalot Y., Tamblyn R., Singh R., Volois M. F. The association between daily mortality and ambient air particle pollution in Montreal, Quebec. 1. Nonaccidental mortality. Environ. Res. A 2001a; 86: 12–25
  • Goldberg M. S., Burnett R. T., Bailer J. C., III, Brook J., Bonvalot Y., Tamblyn R., Singh R., Volois M. F., Vincent R. The association between daily mortality and ambient air particle pollution in Montreal, Quebec. 2. Cause-specific mortality. Environ. Res. A 2001b; 86: 26–36
  • Goldberg M. S., Burnett R. T. Revised analysis of the Montreal time-series study. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA 2003; 113–131
  • Grahame T. J., Hidy G. Using factor analysis to attribute health impacts to particulate pollution sources. Inhal. Toxicol. 2004; 16: 143–152, suppl. 1
  • Grahame T. J., Schlesinger R. B. Evaluating the health risk from secondary sulfates in eastern North American regional ambient air particulate matter. Inhal. Toxicol. 2005; 17: 15–27
  • Gurgueira S. A., Lawrence J., Coull B., Murthy G. G. K., Gonzalez-Flecha B. Rapid increases in the steady-state concentration of reactive oxygen species in the lungs and heart after particulate air pollution inhalation. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002; 110: 749–755
  • Health Effects Institute. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health, Special report of the Health Effects Institute. Boston, MA May, 2003
  • Hewitt C. N. The atmospheric chemistry of sulphur and nitrogen in power station plumes. Atmos. Environ. 2001; 35: 1155–1170
  • Holma B. Effects of inhaled acids on airway mucus and its consequences for health. Environ. Health Perspect. 1989; 79: 109–113
  • Hopke P., Ito K., Mar T., Christensen W. F., Eatough D. T., Henry R. C., Kim E., Laden F., Lall R., Larsen T. V., Lia H., Neas L., Pinto J., Stolzel M., Suh H., Paatero P., Thurston G. D. PM source apportionment and health effects: 1. Intercomparison of source apportionment results. J. Expos. Sci Environ. Epidemiol. 2006; 16: 275–286
  • Huang C., Li J., Zhang Q., Huang X. Role of bioavailable iron in coal dust-induced activation of activator protein-1 and nuclear factor of activated T cells: Difference between Pennsylvania and Utah coal dusts. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol 2002; 27: 568–574
  • Huang Y. C. T., Ghio A. J., Stonehuerner J., McGee J., Carter J. D., Grambow S. C., Devlin R. B. The role of soluble components in ambient fine particles-induced changes in human lungs and blood. Inhal. Toxicol. 2003; 15: 327–342
  • Ito K. Associations of particulate matter components with daily mortality and morbidity in Detroit, Michigan. Revised analysis of time-series studies of air pollution and health, Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA 2003; 143–156
  • Ito K., Xue N., Thurston G. Spatial variation of PM2.5 chemical species and source-apportioned mass concentrations in New York City. Atmos. Environ. 2004; 38: 5269–5282
  • Jerrett M., Burnett R. T., Willis A., Krewski D., Goldberg M. S., DeLuca P., Finkelstein N. Spatial analysis of the air pollution–mortality relationship in the context of ecologic confounders. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2003; A 66: 1735–1777
  • Jerrett M., Burnett R. T., Ma R., Pope C. A., Krewski D., Newbold K. B., Thurston G., Shi Y., Finkelstein N., Calle E. E., Thun M. J. Spatial analysis of air pollution and mortality in Los Angeles. Epidemiology 2005; 16: 727–736
  • Jang M., Czoschke N. M., Lee S., Kamens R. M. Heterogeneous atmospheric aerosol production by acid-catalyzed particle-phase reactions. Science 2002; 298: 814–817
  • Klemm R. J., Mason R. Replication of reanalysis of Harvard Six-City mortality study. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health, Special report. Health Effects Institute. 2003; 165–172
  • Klemm R. J., Lipfert F. W., Wyzga R. E., Gust C. Daily mortality and air pollution in Atlanta: Two years of data from ARIE. Inhal. Toxicol 2004; 16: 131–141, suppl. 1
  • Kodavanti U. P., Mebane R., Ledbetter A., Krantz T., McGee J., Jackson M. C., Walsh L., Hilliard H., Chen B. Y., Richards J., Costa D. L. Variable pulmonary responses from exposure to concentrated ambient air particles in a rat model of bronchitis. Toxicol. Sci. 2000; 54: 441–451
  • Koop G., Tole L. Measuring the health effects of air pollution: To what extent can we really say that people are dying from bad air?. J. Environ. Econ. Manage 2004; 47: 30–54
  • Koutrakis P., Sioutas C. Physico-chemical properties and measurements of ambient particles. Particles in our air: Concentrations and health effects, R. Wilon, J. Spengler. Harvard University Press, Boston 1996, chap. 2
  • Krewski D., Burnett R. T., Goldberg M. S., Hoover K., Siemiatycki J., Jerrett M., Abrahamowicz M., White W. H. Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities study and the American Cancer Society study of particulate air pollution. Part II. sensitivity analysis. Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA 2000
  • Laden F., Neas L. M., Dockery D. W., Schwartz J. Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000; 108: 941–947
  • Laden F., Schwartz J., Speizer F. E., Dockery D. W. Reduction in fine particulate air pollution: extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2006; 173: 667–672
  • Landis M. S., Norris G. A., Williams R. W., Weinstein J. P. Personal exposures to PM2.5 mass and trace elements in Baltimore, MD, USA. Atmos. Environ 2001; 35: 6511–6524
  • Lanki T., de Hartog J. J., Heinrich J., Hoek G., Janssen N. A. H., Peters A., Stolzel M., Timonen K. L., Vallius M., Vanninen E., Pekkanen J. Can we identify sources of fine particles responsible for exercise-inducted ischemia on days with elevated air pollution? The ULTRA study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006; 114: 655–660
  • Lipfert F. W., Morris S. C., Wyzga R. E. Daily mortality in the Philadelphia metropolitan area and size-classified particulate matter. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000a; 50: 1501–1513
  • Lipfert F. W., Zhang J., Wyzga R. E. Infant mortality and air pollution: a comprehensive analysis of U.S. data for 1990. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000b; 50: 1350–1366
  • Lipfert F. W., Perry H. M., Jr., Miller J. P., Baty J. D., Wyzga R. E., Carmody S. E. The Washington University-EPRI veterans' cohort mortality study: Preliminary results. Inhal. Toxicol. 2000c; 12: 41–73, suppl. 4
  • Lipfert F. W., Wyzga R. E., Baty J. D., Miller J. P. Traffic density as a surrogate measure of environmental exposures of air pollution health effects: Long-term mortality in a cohort of US veterans. Atmos. Environ. 2006a; 40: 154–169
  • Lipfert F. W., Baty J. D., Wyzga R. E., Miller J. P. PM2.5 constituents and related air quality variables as predictors of survival in a cohort of U.S. military veterans. Inhal. Toxicol. 2006b; 18: 645–657
  • Lippmann M. Update on sulfur dioxide: Its health effects and its role as a surrogate exposure index of other toxicants. Presentation at 2006 Health Effects Institute Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA, April, 2006
  • Lippmann M., Hwang J.-S, Maciejczyk P., Chen L.-C. PM source apportionment for short-term cardiac function changes in ApoE-/-mice. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005; 113: 1575–1579
  • Lippmann M., Ito K., Nádas A., Burnett R. T. Association of particulate matter composition with daily mortality and morbidity in urban populations. Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA 2000, Report No. 95
  • Lippmann M. Environmental toxicants, 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York 2000
  • Lumley T., Sheppard L. Time series analysis of air pollution and health: Straining at gnats and swallowing camels?. Epidemiology 2003; 14: 13–14
  • Maciejczyk P., Chen L. C. Effects of subchronic exposures to concentrated ambient particles (CAPs) in mice: VIII. Source-related daily variations in in vitro responses to CAPs. Inhal. Toxicol. 2005; 17: 243–253
  • Mar T. F., Norris G. A., Koenig J. Q., Larson T. V. Associations between air pollution and mortality in Phoenix, 1995–1997. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000; 108: 347–353
  • Mar T. F., Norris G. A., Larson T. V., Wilson W. E., Koenig J. Q. Air pollution and cardiovascular mortality in Phoenix, 1995–1997. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston 2003; 172–182
  • McDonald J. C., Harris J., Armstrong B. Mortality in a cohort of vermiculite miners exposed to fibrous amphibole in Libby. Montana. Occup. Environ. Med. 2004; 61: 363–366
  • McDonnell W. F., Nishino-Ishikawa N., Petersen F. F., Chen L. H., Abbey D. E. Relationship of mortality with fine and coarse fractions of long-term ambient PM10 concentrations in nonsmokers. J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol 2000; 10: 427–436
  • Metzger K. B., Tolbert P. E., Klein M., Peel J. L., Flanders W. D., Todd K., Mulholland J. A., Ryan P. B., Frumpkin H. Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular emergency department visits. Epidemiology 2004; 15: 46–56
  • Milford J. B., Davidson C. I. The sizes of particulate sulfate and nitrate in the atmosphere—A review. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 1987; 37: 125–134
  • Moolgavkar S. H. Fine particles and mortality. Inhal. Toxicol. 2006; 18: 93–94
  • Moolgavkar S. H. A review and critique of the EPA's rationale for a fine particle standard. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2005; 42: 123–144
  • Moolgavkar S. H., Luebeck E. G., Hall T. A., Anderson E. L. Air pollution and daily mortality in Philadelphia. Epidemiology 1995; 6: 476–484
  • Morio L. A., Hooper K. A., Brittingham J., Li T.-H., Gordon R. E., Turpin B. J., Laskin D. L. Tissue injury following inhalation of fine particulate matter and hydrogen peroxide is associated with altered production of inflammatory mediators and antioxidants by alveolar macrophages. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2001; 177: 188–199
  • National Research Council. Research priorities for airborne particulate matter. IV. continuing research progress. 2004, Report of the National Research Council of the National Academies
  • Nadadur S. S., Kodavanti U. P. Altered gene expression profiles of rat lung in response to an emission particulate and its metal constituents. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2002; 65: 1333–1350
  • Oberdörster G., Oberdörster E., Oberdörster J. Nanotoxicology: an emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect 2005; 113: 823–839
  • O'Neil M. S., Veves A., Zanobetti A., Sarnet J. A., Gold D. R., Economides P. A., Horton E. S., Schwartz J. Diabetes enhances vulnerability to particulate air pollution—Associated impairment in vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Circulation 2005; 111: 2913–2920
  • Peel J. L., Tolbert P. E., Klein M., Metzger K. B., Flanders W. D., Todd K., Mulholland J. A., Ryan P. B., Frumkin H. Ambient air pollution and respiratory emergency department visits. Epidemiology 2005; 16: 164–174
  • Pope C. A., Thun M. J., Namboodiri M. M., Dockery D. W., Evans J. S., Speizer F. E., Heath C. W., Jr. Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. Am. J. Crit. Care Med. 1995; 151: 669–674
  • Pope C. A., Burnett R. T., Thun M., Calle E. E., Krewski D., Ito K., Thurston G. D. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J. Am. Mod. Assoc. 2002; 287: 1132–1141
  • Pope C. A., Dockery D. W. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2006; 56: 709–742
  • Rachet B., Siemiatycki J., Abrahamowicz M., Leffondre K. A flexible modeling approach to estimating the component effects of smoking behavior on lung cancer. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2004; 57: 1076–1085
  • Ramadan Z., Song X.-H., Hopke P. K. Identification of sources of Phoenix aerosol by positive matrix factorization. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000; 50: 1308–1320
  • Rothenberg S., Nagy P. A., Pickrell J. A., Hobbs C. H. Surface area, adsorption and desorption studies in indoor dust samples. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. 1989; 50: 15–23
  • Saldiva P. H. N., Clarke R. W., Coull B. A., Stearns R. C., Lawrence J., Murthy G. G. K., Diaz E., Koutrakis P., Suh H., Tsuda A., Godleski J. J. Lung inflammation induced by concentrated ambient air particles is related to particle composition. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2002; 165: 1610–1617
  • Samet J. M., Dominici F., Zeger S. L., Schwartz J., Dockery D. W. The national morbidity, mortality, and air pollution study, Part I: Methods and methodologic issues. Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA 2000a
  • Samet J. M., Zeger S. L., Dominici F., Curriero F., Coursac I., Dockery D. W., Schwartz J., Zanobetti A. The national morbidity, mortality, and air pollution study. Part II: Morbidity, mortality, and air pollution in the United States. Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA 2000b
  • Sarangapani R., Wexler A. S. Growth and neutralization of sulfate aerosols in human airways. J. Appl. Physiol. 1996; 81: 480–490
  • Sarnat J. A., Koutrakis P., Suh H. H. Assessing the relationship between personal particulate and gaseous exposures of senior citizens living in Baltimore, MD. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000; 50: 1184–1198
  • Saxena P., Hildemann L. M. Water-soluble organics in atmospheric particles: A critical review of the literature and application of thermodynamics to identify candidate compounds. J. Atmos. Chem. 1996; 24: 57–109
  • Seagrave J., McDonald J. D., Bedrick E., Edgerton E. S., Gigliotti A. P., Jansen J. J., Ke L., Naeher L., Seilkop S. K., Zheng M., Mauderly J. L. Lung toxicity of ambient particulate matter from Southeastern U.S. sites with different contributing sources: Relationships between composition and effects. Environ. Health Perspect. doi 2006; 10, 1289/ehp.9234
  • Schlesinger R. B., Cassee F. Atmospheric secondary inorganic particulate matter: The toxicological perspective as a basis for health effects risk assessment. Inhal. Toxicol. 2003; 15: 197–235
  • Schlesinger R. B., Kunzli N., Hidy G. M., Gotschi T., Jerrett M. The health relevance of ambient particulate matter characteristics: Coherence of toxicological and epidemiological inferences. Inhal. Toxicol. 2006; 18: 95–125
  • Schwartz J., Dockery D. W., Neas L. M. Is daily mortality associated specifically with fine particles?. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 1996; 46: 927–939
  • Schwartz J. Daily deaths associated with air pollution in six U.S. Cities and short-term morality displacement in Boston. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special report. Health Effects Institute, Boston 2003; 219–226
  • Schwartz J., Litonjua A., Suh H., Verrier M., Zanobetti A., Syring M., Nearing B., Verrier R., Stone P., MacCallum G., Speizer F. E., Gold D. R. Traffic related pollution and heart rate variability in a panel of elderly subjects. Thorax 2005; 60: 455–461
  • Sinclair A. H., Tolsma D. Associations and lags between air pollution and acute respiratory visits in an ambulatory care setting: 25-Month results from the Aerosol Research and Inhalation Epidemiological Study. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2004; 54: 1212–1218
  • Smith R. L. Invited commentary: timescale-dependent mortality effects of air pollution. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2003; 157: 1066–1070, discussion, 1071–1073
  • Takahama S., Davidson C. I., Pandis S. N. Semicontinuous measurements of organic carbon and acidity during the Pittsburgh air quality study: Implications for acid-catalyzed organic aerosol formation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006; 40: 2191–2199
  • Thurston G. D., Ito K., Mar T., Christensen W. F., Eatough D. J., Henry R. C., Kim E., Laden F., Lall R., Larson T. V., Liu H., Neas L., Pinto J., Stölzel M., Suh H., Hopke P. K. Workshop report: the workshop on the source apportionment of PM health effects: Inter-comparison of results and implications. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005; 113: 1768–1774
  • Tsai F. C., Apte M. G., Daisey J. M. An exploratory analysis of the relationship between mortality and the chemical composition of airborne particulate matter. Inhal. Toxicol. 2000; 12: 121–135, suppl. 2
  • Urch B., Brook J. R., Wasserstein D., Brook R. D., Rajagopalan S., Corey P., Silverman F. Relative contributions of PM2.5 chemical constituents to acute arterial vasoconstriction in humans. Inhal. Toxicol. 2004; 16: 345–352
  • Urch B., Silverman F., Corey P., Brook J. R., Lukic K. Z., Rajagopalan S., Brook R. D. Acute blood pressure responses in healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005; 113: 1052–1055
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ambient air monitoring reference and equivalent methods. 1999, http://www.epa.gov/ttnamti1/indexqa.html 40 CFR 50
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National air quality and emissions trends report, 2003 special studies edition. 2003, http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends EPA/454/R-03-005
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air quality criteria for particulate matter. 2004a, http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=151826 EPA/600/P-99/002bF
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The particle pollution report: Current understanding of air quality and emissions through 2003. 2004b, http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends/aqtrnd04/pm.html EPA 454-R-04-002
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate matter, policy assessment of scientific and technical information. 2005, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s_pm_cr_sp.html OAQPS staff paper. EPA-452/R-05-005a
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate matter. Fed. Reg 2006; 71(10)2619–2708
  • Vallyathan V., Shi X. The role of oxygen free radicals in occupational and environmental lung diseases. Environ. Health Perspect. 1997; 105: 165–177
  • Villeneuve P. J., Goldberg M. S., Krewski D., Burnett R. T., Chen Y. Fine particulate air pollution and all-cause mortality within the Harvard Six-Cities study: Variations in risk by period of exposure. Ann. Epidemiol. 2002; 12: 568–576
  • Villeneuve P. J., Burnett R. T., Shi Y., Krewski D., Goldberg M. S., Hertzman C., Chen Y., Brook J. A time-series of air pollution, socioeconomic status, and mortality in Vancouver, Canada. J Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 2003; 13: 427–435
  • Vione D., Maurino V., Minero C., Pelizzetti E., Harrison M. A., Olariu R. I., Arsene C. Photochemical reactions in the tropospheric aqueous phase and particulate matter. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2006; 35: 441–453
  • Wang H. C., John W. Characteristics of the Berner impactor for sampling inorganic ions. Aerosol. Sci. Technol. 1988; 8: 157–172
  • Wellenius G. A., Coull B. A., Godleski J. J., Koutrakis P., Okabe K., Savage S. T., Lawrence J. E., Murthy G. G., Verrier R. L. Inhalation of concentrated ambient air particles exacerbates myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003; 111(4)402–408
  • Wexler A. S., Sarangapani R. Particles do not increase vapor deposition in human airways. J. Aerosol Sci. 1998; 29: 197–204
  • Whitby K. T. The physical characteristics of sulfur aerosols. Atmos. Environ. 1978; 12: 135–159
  • Willis A., Jerrett M., Burnett R. T., Krewski D. The association between sulfate air pollution and mortality at the county scale: An exploration of the impact of scale on a long-term exposure study. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2003; 66: 1605–1624
  • Wilson W. E., Mage D. T., Grant L. D. Estimating separately personal exposure to ambient and nonambient particulate matter for epidemiology and risk assessment: Why and how. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000; 50: 1167–1183
  • Zhang Q., Canagaratna M. R., Jayne J. T., Worsnop D. R., Jimenez J.-L. Time- and size-resolved chemical composition of submicron particles in Pittsburgh: Implications for aerosol sources and processes. J. Geophys. Res. 2005; 110: D07S09

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.