3,169
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ARTICLES

A Legacy of Harm: Punitive Drug Policies and Women’s Carceral Experiences in Canada

, &

REFERENCES

  • Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
  • Barrett, M. R., Allenby, K., & Taylor, K. (2010). Twenty years later: Revisiting the Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women. Research Report R-222. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service of Canada.
  • Bazeley, P., & Jackson, K. (Eds.). (2013). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Bennett, D., & Bernstein, S. (2013). Throwing away the keys: The human and social cost of mandatory minimum sentences. Vancouver, BC: Pivot Legal Society.
  • Benoit, C., Jansson, M., Millar, A., & Philips, R. (2005). Community-academic research on hard-to-reach populations: Benefits and challenges. Qualitative Health Research, 15(2), 263–282.
  • Betteridge, D., & Dias, G. (2007). Hard time: HIV and hepatitis C prevention programming for prisoners in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network & Prisoners with HIV/AIDS Support Action Network.
  • Blair, J. P., & Maser, M. (1977). Axiomatic versus empirical models in policy studies. Policy Studies Journal, 5(3), 282–289.
  • Boiteux, L. (2015). The incarceration of women for drug offenses. Washington, DC: The Research Consortium on Drugs and the Law (CEDD).
  • Boyd, S., & Faith, K (1999). Women, illegal drugs and prison: Views from Canada. International Journal of Drug Policy, 10, 195–207.
  • Bradbury-Huang, H. (Ed.). (2015). The handbook of action research: Participative inquiry and practice (3rd ed.). London, UK: Sage.
  • Bruneau, J., Daniel, M., Kestens, Y., Zang, G., & Généreux, M. (2008). Associations between HIV-related injection behaviour and distance to and patterns of utilisation of syringe-supply programmes. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(9), 804–810.
  • Buchanan, M., Murphy, K., Martin, M. S., Korchinski, M., Buxton, J., Granger-Brown, A., … Martin, R. E. (2011). Understanding incarcerated women’s perspectives on substance use: Catalysts, reasons for use, consequences, and desire for change. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 50(2), 81–100.
  • Canada Gazette. (2016). Controlled Drugs and Substances Act: Regulations amending certain regulations made under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (Access to Diacetylmorphine for Emergency Treatment). Ottawa, ON: Health Canada. Retrieved from http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2016/2016-09-07/html/sor-dors239-eng.php
  • Canadian Bar Association. (2011). Submission on bill C-10: Safe streets and communities act. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Bar Association.
  • Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. (2012). Women in prison, HIV and hepatitis C. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network.
  • Carson, E. A. (2015). Prisoners in 2014. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • Carstairs, C. (2004). The racist roots of Canada’s drug laws. The Beaver: Exploring Canada’s History, 84(1), 11–12.
  • Carter, C., & Macpherson, D. (2013). Getting to tomorrow: A report on Canadian drug policy. Vancouver, BC: Canadian Drug Policy Coalition.
  • Chu, S. K. H., & Elliott, R. (2009). Clean switch: The case for prison needle and syringe programs in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network.
  • Chu, S. K. H., & Elliott, R. (2012). Brief to the Standing Senate Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, in relation to the committee’s study on bill C-10. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network.
  • Collins, S. (2005). An understanding of poverty from those who are poor. Action Research, 3(1), 9–31.
  • Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (S.C. 1996, c. 19).
  • Correctional Service Canada. (2014). Research results: Women offenders. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service Canada.
  • Covington, S. S., & Bloom, B. E. (2003). Gendered justice: Women in the criminal justice system. In B. E. Bloom (Ed.), Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders (pp. 1–20). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press
  • Csete, J. (2005). “Vectors, vessels and victims”: HIV/AIDS and women’s human rights in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network.
  • DeBeck, K., Wood, W., Montaner, J., & Kerr, T. (2009). Canada’s new federal “National Anti-Drug Strategy”: An informal audit of reported funding allocation. International Journal of Drug Policy, 20(2), 188–191.
  • Demaret, I., Deblire, C., Litran, G., Magoga, C., Quertemont, E., Ansseau, M., & Lemaitre, A. (2015). Reduction in acquisitive crime during a heroin-assisted treatment: A post-hoc study. Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, 6(208), 1–5.
  • Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Derkzen, D., Booth, L., Taylor, K., & McConnell, A. (2012). Mental health needs of federal female offenders. Psychological Services, 10(1), 24–36.
  • DiCenso, A., Dias, G., & Gahagan, J. (2003). Unlocking our futures: A national study on women, prisons, HIV, and hepatitis C. Toronto, ON: Prisoners with HIV/AIDS Support Action Network.
  • DiCicco-Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. F. (2006). The qualitative research interview. Medical Education, 40(4), 314–321.
  • Dolan, K., Rutter, S., & Wodak, A. D. (2003). Prison-based syringe exchange programmes: A review of international research and development. Addiction, 98(2), 153–158.
  • Drug-Free Prisons Act (S.C. 2015, c. 30).
  • Drug Policy Alliance. (2015). Women and gender in the drug wars. Retrieved from http://www.drugpolicy.org/women-and-gender-drug-war
  • Dupont, I. (2008). Beyond doing no harm: A call for participatory action research with marginalized populations in criminological research. Critical Criminology, 16(3), 197–207.
  • Egli, N., Pina, M., Skovbo Christensen, P., Aebi, M., & Killias, M. (2009). Effects of drug substitution programs on offending among drug-addicts: A systematic review. Zurich, Switzerland: The Campbell Collaboration.
  • Eljdupovic, G., & Bromwich, R. (Eds.). (2013). Incarcerated mothers: Oppression and resistance. Toronto, ON: Demeter Press.
  • England, J. (2004). Disciplining subjectivity and space: Representation, film and its material effects. Antipode, 36(2), 295–321.
  • Erickson, P. (2015). Social regulation of drugs: The new “normal”? Radical Criminology, 0(5), 193–217.
  • Fairbairn, N., Small, W., Shannon, K., Wood, E., & Kerr, T. (2008). Seeking refuge from violence in street-based drug scenes: women’s experiences in North America’s first supervised injection facility. Social Science & Medicine, 67, 817–823.
  • Fals Borda, O., & Rahman, M. A. (Eds.). (1991). Action and knowledge: Breaking the monopoly with participatory action-research. New York, NY: The Apex Press.
  • Fine, M., & Torre, M. E. (2006). Intimate details: Participatory action research in prison. Action Research, 4(3), 253–269.
  • Gatenby, B., & Humphries, M. (2000). Feminist participatory action research: Methodological and ethical issues. Women’s Studies International Forum, 23(1), 89–105.
  • Giacomello, C. (2013). Women, drug offenses and penitentiary systems in Latin America, Briefing Paper. London, UK: International Drug Policy Consortium.
  • Gibson, D. R., Flynn, N. M., & Perales, D. (2001). Effectiveness of syringe exchange programs in reducing HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion among injecting drug users. AIDS, 15(11), 1329–1341.
  • Gilgun, J. (2005). Qualitative research and family psychology. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(1), 40–50.
  • Gordon, T. (2006). Neoliberalism, racism, and the war on drugs in Canada. Social Justice, 33(1), 59–78.
  • Government of Canada. (2012). House of Commons to take final vote on the Safe Streets and Communities Act (Bill C-10). Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.
  • Government of Canada. (2015). Harper government highlights Royal Assent of the Drug-Free Prisons Act. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.
  • Government of Canada. (2016). Statement from the Minister of Health—Health Canada authorizes Dr. Peter Centre to operate second supervised consumption site in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.
  • Government of Ontario. (1995). Report of the Commission on Systemic Racism in the Criminal Ontario Justice System. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/reportracismont00comm
  • Hannah-Moffat, K. (2011). Criminological cliques: Narrowing dialogues, institutional protectionism, and the next generation. In M. Bosworth & C. Hoyle (Eds.), What is criminology? (pp. 440–455). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Hannah-Moffat, K., & Maurutto, P. (2010). Re-contextualizing pre-sentence reports: Risk and race. Punishment & Society, 12(3), 262–286.
  • Hannah-Moffat, K., & Shaw, M. (Eds.). (2000). An ideal prison? Critical essays on women’s imprisonment in Canada. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
  • Hayman, S. (2006). Imprisoning our sisters: The new federal women’s prisons in Canada. Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
  • Hughes, C. A., & Stevens, A. (2010). What can we learn from the Portuguese decriminalization of illicit drugs? The British Journal of Criminology, 50(6), 999–1022.
  • Kazatchkine, C., Elliott, R., & Macpherson, D. (2014). An injection of reason: Critical analysis of bill C-2. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network & Canadian Drug Policy Coalition.
  • Klein, A. (2007). Sticking points: Barriers to access to needle and syringe programs in Canada. Toronto, ON: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network.
  • Kong, R., & AuCoin, K. (2008). Female offenders in Canada. Juristat: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistic, 28(1), 1–22.
  • Ksobiech, K. (2003). A meta-analysis of needle sharing, lending, and borrowing behaviors of needle exchange program attenders. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15(3), 257–268.
  • Kunic, D., & Varis, D. D. (2009). The Aboriginal Offender Substance Abuse Program (AOSAP): Examining the effects of successful completion on post-release outcomes. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service of Canada.
  • Kvale, S. (2006). Dominance through interviews and dialogues. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(3), 480–500.
  • Lapidus, L., Luthra, N., Verma, A., Small, D., Allard, P., & Levingston, K. (2005). Caught in the net: The impact of drug policies on women and families. New York, NY: American Civil Liberties Union, Break the Chains, & the Brennan Center at NYU School of Law.
  • Legard, R., Keegan, J., & Ward, K. (2003). In-depth interviews. In J. Ritchie & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (pp. 139–169). London, UK: Sage.
  • Lines, R., Jürgens, J., Betteridge, G., & Stöver, H. (2005). Taking action to reduce injection drug-related harms in prisons: The evidence of effectiveness of prison needle exchange in six countries. International Journal of Prisoner Health, 1(1), 49–64.
  • Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (2000). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research, second edition (pp. 163–188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • LSE Expert Group on the Economics of Drug Policy. (2014). Ending the drug wars. London, UK: The London School of Economics and Social Science.
  • Lynch, M. (2011). Theorizing punishment: Reflections on Wacquant’s Punishing the Poor. Critical Sociology, 37(2), 237–244.
  • Malinowska-Sempruch, K., & Rychkova, O. (2015). The impact of drug policy on women. New York, NY: Open Society Foundations.
  • Mangat, R. (2014). More than we can afford: The costs of mandatory minimum sentencing. Vancouver, BC: British Columbia Civil Liberties Association (BCCLA).
  • Martel, J. (2004). Policing criminological knowledge: The hazards of qualitative research on women in prison. Theoretical Criminology, 8(2), 157–189.
  • Martel, J., & Brassard, R. (2008). Painting the prison “red”: Constructing and experiencing Aboriginal identities in prison. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 340–361.
  • Matheson, F. I., Doherty, S., & Grant, B. A. (2008). Women offender substance abuse programming & community reintegration. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service Canada.
  • Michalsen, V., Flavin, J., & Krupat, T. (2010). More than visiting hours: Maintaining ties between incarcerated mothers and their children. Sociology Compass 4, 576–591.
  • Mitchell, A., Sikka, P., & Willmott, H. (2001). Policing knowledge by invoking the law: Critical accounting and the politics of dissemination. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 12(5), 527–555.
  • Motherall, J. (2006). Giving a voice to (former) prisoners in the debate on prisoners’ health. International Journal of Prisoner Health, 2(3), 253–255.
  • Morgan, D. (1996). Focus groups. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 129–152.
  • Morrow, A., & Woo, A. (2013, October 4). Ottawa vetoes prescription heroin treatment for addicts. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/health-minister-tightens-rules-on-drug-access-program/article14680475/
  • Nelles, J., Dobler-Mikola, A., & Kaufmann, B. (1997). Provision of syringes and prescription of heroin in prison: The Swiss experience in the prisons of Hindelbank and Oberschngrün. In J. Nelles & A. Fuhrer (Eds.), Harm reduction in prison: Strategies against drugs, AIDS, and risk behaviour (pp. 239–262). Bern, CH: Peter Lang.
  • Office of the Correctional Investigator. (2013). Annual report of the Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2012–2013. Ottawa, ON: The Correctional Investigator Canada.
  • Office of the Correctional Investigator. (2014). Annual report of the Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2013–2014. Ottawa, ON: The Correctional Investigator Canada.
  • Office of the Correctional Investigator. (2016). Annual report of the Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2015–2016. Ottawa, ON: The Correctional Investigator Canada.
  • Owusu-Bempah, A., Kanters, S., Druyts, E., Toor, K., Muldoon, K. A., Farquhar, J. W., & Mills, E. J. (2014). Years of life lost to incarceration: Inequities between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Canadians. BMC Public Health, 14, 585–590.
  • Packer-Multi, B. (2010). Conducting a focus group. The Qualitative Report, 15(4), 1023–1026.
  • Phillips, M. A. (1997). Feminist anti-racist participatory action research: Research for social change around women’s health in Brazil. Canadian Woman Studies, 17(2), 100–105.
  • Public Health Agency of Canada. (2014). HIV/AIDS Epi updates—Chapter 1: National HIV prevalence and incidence estimates for 2011. Ottawa, ON: PHAC.
  • Public Safety Canada. (2015). 2014 annual report: Corrections and conditional release statistical overview. Portfolio Corrections Statistics Committee. Ottawa, ON: Public Safety Canada.
  • Respect for Communities Act (S.C. 2015, c. 22).
  • Reagan, B. (1991). The war on drugs: A war against women. Berkeley Women’s Law Journal, 6, 203–214.
  • Reid, C. (2000). Seduction and enlightenment in feminist action research. Resources for Feminist Research, 28(2), 169–191.
  • Reid, C., Tom, A., & Frisby, W. (2006). Finding the “action” in feminist participatory action research. Action Research, 4(3), 315–332.
  • Reiter, K. (2014). Making windows in walls: Strategies for prison research. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(4), 414–425.
  • Safe Streets and Communities Act, S.C. 2012, c. 1.
  • Sharp, S. F., & Marcus-Mendoza, S. T. (2001). It’s a family affair: Incarcerated women and their families. Women and Criminal Justice, 12, 21–49.
  • Simon, M. A., Ragas, D. M., Willis, C., Hajjar, N., Dong, X., & Murphy, K. (2014). Leveraging a community-based research approach to explore research perceptions among suburban poor and underserved populations. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 7(1), 60–70.
  • Smith, A., & Ross, L. (2004). Introduction: Native women and state violence. Social Justice, 31(4), 1–7.
  • Smylie, J., Kaplan-Myrth, N., McShane, K. Métis Nation of Ontario-Ottawa Council, Pikwakanagan First Nation, & Tungasuvvingat Inuit Family Resource Centre. (2009). Indigenous knowledge translation: Baseline findings in a qualitative study of the pathways of health knowledge in three Indigenous communities in Canada. Health Promotion Practice, 10(3), 436–446.
  • Spivakovsky, C. (2011). The need for flexible and adaptive research in an environment of diverse barriers to accessing data. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 26(3), 607–612.
  • Statistics Canada. (2015). Adult correctional statistics in Canada, 2013/2014. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.
  • Statistics Canada. (2016). Women in Canada: First Nations, Métis and Inuit women. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.
  • Stöver, H., & Nelles, J. (2003). Ten years of experience with needle and syringe exchange programmes in European prisons. International Journal of Drug Policy, 14(5–6), 437–444.
  • Strang, J., Groshkova, T., & Metrebian, N. (2012). New heroin-assisted treatment: Recent evidence and current practices of supervised injectable heroin treatment in Europe and beyond. Luxembourg: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.
  • Sudbury, J. (Ed.). (2005). Global lockdown: Race, gender and the prison industrial complex. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Sweeney, A., Greenwood, K. E., Williams, S., Wykes, T., & Rose, D. S. (2012). Hearing the voices of service user researchers in collaborative qualitative data analysis: The case for multiple coding. Health Expectations, 16, e89–e99.
  • Thompson, J., Zakaria, D., & Jarvis, A. (2010). Use of bleach and the methadone maintenance treatment program as harm reduction measures in Canadian Penitentiaries. Report number R-210. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service of Canada.
  • Trubnikov, M., Yan, P., & Archibald, C. (2014). Estimated prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Canada, 2011 ( CCDR: Volume 40–19). Ottawa, ON: Public Health Agency of Canada.
  • United Nations. (2011). Rules for the treatment of women prisoners and non-custodial measures for women offenders (The Bangcock Rules). General Assembly, 65th session. Retrieved from https://cdn.penalreform.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/BangkokRules-Updated-2016-with-renumbering-SMR.pdf
  • UNGASS. (2016). Women’s declaration calling for global drug policies that support women, children, and families. UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem. Retrieved from http://www.ungasswomen2016.com/english
  • van der Meulen, E. (2011). Action research with sex workers: Dismantling barriers and building bridges. Action Research, 9(4), 370–384.
  • van der Meulen, E., Claivaz-Loranger, S., Clarke, S., Ollner, A., & Watson, T. M. (2016). On point: Recommendations for prison-based needle and syringe programs in Canada. Toronto, ON.
  • van der Meulen, E., Watson, T. M., & De Shalit, A. (2017, forthcoming). Insights on prison needle and syringe programs in Canada: Community-based research with former prisoners. The Prison Journal.
  • Wahab, S. (2003). Creating knowledge collaboratively with female sex workers: Insights from a qualitative, feminist, and participatory study. Qualitative Inquiry, 9(4), 625–642.
  • Warr, D. J. (2005). “It was fun … but we don’t usually talk about these things”: Analyzing sociable interaction in focus groups. Qualitative Inquiry, 11(2), 200–225.
  • Watson, T. M. (2015). Research access barriers as reputational risk management: A case study of censorship in corrections. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 57(3), 330–362.
  • Wesley, M. (2012). Marginalized: The Aboriginal women’s experience in federal corrections. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Corrections Policy Unit, Public Safety Canada.
  • Weston, C., Gandell, T., Beauchamp, J., McAlpine, L., Wiseman, C., & Beauchamp, C. (2001). Analyzing interview data: The development and evolution of a coding system. Qualitative Sociology, 24(3), 381–400.
  • Whyte, W. F. (1991). Participatory action research. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
  • Wodak, A., & Cooney, A. (2005). Effectiveness of sterile needle and syringe programmes. International Journal of Drug Policy, 16(Suppl. 1), S31–44.
  • Woo, A. (2016, March 17). Supervised injection site Insite gets green light for next four years. Globe and Mail. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/supervised-injection-site-insite-gets-green-light-for-next-four-years/article29286193/
  • Wood, R. A., Wood, E., Lai, C., Tyndall, M., Montaner, J., & Kerr, T. (2008). Nurse-delivered safer injection education among a cohort of injection drug users: Evidence from the evaluation of Vancouver’s supervised injection facility. International Journal of Drug Policy, 19(3), 183–188.
  • World Health Organization. (2004). Effectiveness of sterile needle and syringe programming in reducing HIV/AIDS among injecting drug users. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
  • World Health Organization. (2009). Priority interventions: HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment and care in the health sector. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
  • Yeager, M. G. (2008). Getting the usual treatment: Research censorship and the dangerous offender. Contemporary Justice Review, 11(4), 413–425.
  • Zakaria, D., Thompson, J. M., Jarvis, A., & Borgatta, F. (2010). Summary of emerging findings from the 2007 National Inmate Infectious Diseases and Risk-Behaviours Survey. Research Report R-211. Ottawa, ON: Correctional Service of Canada.
  • Zinger, I. (2016). Human rights and federal corrections: A commentary on a decade of tough on crime policies in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 58(4), 1–19.
  • Zou, S., Tepper, M., & Giulivi, A. (2001). Viral hepatitis and emerging blood-borne pathogens in Canada. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 27S3. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.