Treating PTSD in active duty service members using cognitive processing therapy or prolonged exposure therapy: Examining everyday practice at a military outpatient clinic

References

• Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, C. B., Zayfert, C., & Anderson, E. (2004). A survey of psychologists’ attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(3), 277–292. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00138-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellg, A. J., Borrelli, B., Resnick, B., Hecht, J., Minicucci, D. S., Ory, M., … Czajkowski, S. (2004). Enhancing treatment fidelity in health behavior change studies: Best practices and recommendations from the NIH Behavior Change Consortium. Health Psychology, 23(5), 443–451. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.23.5.443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cahill, S. P., Rothbaum, B. O., Resick, P. A., & Follette, V. M. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adults. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. A. Cohen (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (2nd ed., pp. 139–222). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, K. M., Nich, C., & Rounsaville, B. (1998). Utility of therapist session checklists to monitor delivery of coping skills treatment for cocaine abusers. Psychotherapy Research, 8, 307–320. doi:10.1080/10503309812331332407
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman, J. E., McCart, M. R., Letourneau, E. J., & Sheidow, A. J. (2013). Comparison of youth, caregiver, therapist, trained, and treatment expert raters of therapist adherence to a substance abuse treatment protocol. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(4), 674–680. doi:10.1037/a0033021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chard, K. M. (2005). An evaluation of cognitive processing therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 965–971. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.5.965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chard, K. M., Ricksecker, E. G., Healy, E. T., Karlin, B. E., & Resick, P. A. (2012). Dissemination and experience with cognitive processing therapy. The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 49(5), 667–678. doi:10.1682/JRRD.2011.10.0198
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cigrang, J. A., Rauch, S. M., Avila, L. L., Bryan, C. J., Goodie, J. L., Hryshko-Mullen, A., & Peterson, A. L. (2011). Treatment of active-duty military with PTSD in primary care: Early findings. Psychological Services, 8(2), 104–113. doi:10.1037/a0022740
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cusack, K., Jonas, D. E., Forneris, C. A., Wines, C., Sonis, J., Middleton, J. C., … Gaynes, B. N. (2016). Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 43, 128–141. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deacon, B. J., & Farrell, N. R. (2013). Therapist barriers to the dissemination of exposure therapy. In E. A. Storch & D. McKay (Eds.), Handbook of treating variants and complications in anxiety disorders (pp. 363–373). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Dillon, K. H., LoSavio, S. T., & Resick, P. A. (2017). How should we treat post-traumatic stress disorder in active military personnel. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 17(7), 641–643. doi:10.1080/14737175.2017.1325734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eftekhari, A., Ruzek, J. I., Crowley, J. J., Rosen, C. S., Greenbaum, M. A., & Karlin, B. E. (2013). Effectiveness of national implementation of prolonged exposure therapy in Veterans Affairs care. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(9), 949–955. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, D. S., & Mihalic, S. (2004). Issues in disseminating and replicating effective prevention programs. Prevention Science, 5(1), 47–52. doi:10.1023/B:PREV.0000013981.28071.52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel, C. C., Oxman, T., Yamamoto, C., Gould, D., Barry, S., Stewart, P., … Dietrich, A. J. (2008). RESPECT-Mil: Feasibility of a systems-level collaborative care approach to depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in military primary care. Military Medicine, 173(10), 935–940. doi:10.7205/MILMED.173.10.935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, C., Mellor-Clark, J., Margison, F., Barkham, M., Audion, K., Connell, J., & McGrath, G. (2000). CORE: Clinical outcomes in routine evaluation. Journal of Mental Health, 9, 247–255. doi:10.1080/jmh.9.3.247.255
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Gillihan, S. J., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). Challenges and successes in dissemination of evidence-based treatments for posttraumatic stress: Lessons learned from prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(2), 65–111. doi:10.1177/1529100612468841
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Hearst-Ikeda, D., & Perry, K. J. (1995). Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of chronic PTSD in recent assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 948–955. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.63.6.948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Forbes, D., Lloyd, D., Nixon, R. D. V., Elliott, P., Varker, T., Perry, D., … Creamer, M. (2012). A multisite randomized controlled effectiveness trial of cognitive processing therapy for military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(3), 442–452. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frison, L., & Pocock, S. J. (1992). Repeated measures in clinical trials: Analysis using mean summary statistics and its implications for design. Statistics in Medicine, 11(13), 1685–1704. doi:10.1002/sim.4780111304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galovski, T. E., Blain, L. M., Mott, J. M., Elwood, L., & Houle, T. (2012). Manualized therapy for PTSD: Flexing the structure of cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(6), 968–981. doi:10.1037/a0030600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, M. J., Schorr, Y., Nash, W., Lebowitz, L., Amidon, A., Lansing, A., … Litz, B. T. (2012). Adaptive disclosure: An open trial of a novel exposure-based intervention for service members with combat-related psychological stress injuries. Behavior Therapy, 43(2), 407–415. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2011.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haagen, J. F. G., Smid, G. E., Knipscheer, J. W., & Kleber, R. J. (2015). The efficacy of recommended treatments for Veterans with PTSD: A metaregression analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 184–194. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hembree, E. A., Rauch, S. M., & Foa, E. B. (2003). Beyond the manual: The insider’s guide to Prolonged Exposure therapy for PTSD. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 10(1), 22–30. doi:10.1016/S1077-7229(03)80005-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Brondino, M. J., Scherer, D. G., & Hanley, J. H. (1997). Multisystemic therapy with violent and chronic juvenile offenders and their families: The role of treatment fidelity in successful dissemination. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 821–833. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.5.821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henggeler, S. W., Pickrel, S. G., & Brondino, M. J. (1999). Multisystemic treatment of substance-abusing and -dependent delinquents: Outcomes, treatment fidelity, and transportability. Mental Health Services Research, 1(3), 171–184. doi:10.1023/A:1022373813261
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine, 351(1), 13–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine. (2012). Treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in military and veteran populations: Initial assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jain, S., McMahon, G. F., Hasen, P., Kozub, M. P., Porter, V., King, R., … Guarneri, E. M. (2012). Healing Touch with Guided Imagery for PTSD in returning active duty military: A randomized controlled trial. Military Medicine, 177(9), 1015–1021. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-11-00290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlin, B. E., Ruzek, J. I., Chard, K. M., Eftekhari, A., Monson, C. M., Hembree, E. A., … Foa, E. B. (2010). Dissemination of evidence-based psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder in the Veterans Health Administration. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 663–673. doi:10.1002/jts.20588
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, P. Y., Thomas, J. L., Wilk, J. E., Castro, C. A., & Hoge, C. W. (2010). Stigma, barriers to care, and use of mental health services among active duty and National Guard soldiers after combat. Psychiatric Services, 61(6), 582–588. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.6.582
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer, U. (2009). Between manualized treatments and principle-guided psychotherapy: Illustration in the case of Caroline. Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy, 5, 45–51. doi:10.14713/pcsp.v5i2.970
   Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Hansen, N. B., & Harmon, S. C. (2010). Outcome Questionnaire System (The OQ System): Development and practical applications in healthcare settings. In M. Barkham, G. E. Hardy, & J. Mellor-Clark (Eds.), Developing and delivering practice-based evidence: A guide for the psychological therapies (pp. 141–154). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, J. T., Malta, L. S., Martin, A., Davis, L., & Cloitre, M. (2007). The flexible application of a manualized treatment for PTSD symptoms and functional impairment related to the 9/11 World Trade Center attack. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(7), 1419–1433. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litz, B. T., Engel, C. C., Bryant, R. A., & Papa, A. (2007). A randomized, controlled proof-of-concept trial of an internet-based, therapist-assisted self-management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(11), 1676–1683. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06122057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martino, S., Ball, S., Nich, C., Frankforter, T. L., & Carroll, K. M. (2009). Correspondence of motivational enhancement treatment integrity ratings among therapists, supervisors, and observers. Psychotherapy Research : Journal of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, 19(2), 181–193. doi:10.1080/10503300802688460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McHugh, R. K., & Barlow, D. H. (2010). The dissemination and implementation of evidence-based psychological treatments: A review of current efforts. The American Psychologist, 65(2), 73–84. doi:10.1037/a0018121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLay, R. N., Wood, D. P., Webb-Murphy, J. A., Spira, J. L., Wiederhold, M. D., Pyne, J. M., & Wiederhold, B. K. (2011). A randomized, controlled trial of virtual reality-graded exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in active duty service members with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(4), 223–229. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, C. P., & Foa, E. B. (2011). Prolonged exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: A review of evidence and dissemination. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 11(8), 1151–1163. doi:10.1586/ern.11.94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monson, C. M., Schnurr, P. P., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., Young-Xu, Y., & Stevens, S. P. (2006). Cognitive processing therapy for Veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 898–907. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morland, L. A., Mackintosh, M. A., Greene, C. J., Rosen, C. S., Chard, K. M., Resick, P., & Frueh, B. C. (2014). Cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder delivered to rural Veterans via telemental health: A randomized noninferiority clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(5), 470–476. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nacasch, N., Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Tzur, D., Fostick, L., Dinstein, Y., … Zohar, J. (2011). Prolonged exposure therapy for combat- and terror-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized control comparison with treatment as usual. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(9), 1174–1180. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05682blu
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olatunji, B. O., Deacon, B. J., & Abramowitz, J. S. (2009). The cruelest cure? Ethical issues in the implementation of exposure-based treatments. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 16(2), 172–180. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.07.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rauch, S. A. M., King, A. P., Abelson, J., Tuerk, P. W., Smith, E., Rothbaum, B. O., … Liberzon, I. (2015). Biological and symptom changes in posttraumatic stress disorder treatment: A randomized clinical trial. Depression and Anxiety, 32(3), 204–212. doi:10.1002/da.22331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Reger, G. M., Koenen-Woods, P., Zetocha, K., Smolenski, D. J., Holloway, K. M., Rothbaum, B. O., … Gahm, G. A. (2016). Randomized controlled trial of prolonged exposure using imaginal exposure vs. virtual reality exposure in active duty soldiers with deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(11), 946–959. doi:10.1037/ccp0000134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T. L., Astin, M. C., & Feuer, C. A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867–879. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.70.4.867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. K. (1992). Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 748–756. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.60.5.748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., Wachen, J. S., Dondanville, K. A., Pruiksma, K. E., Yarvis, J. S., Peterson, A. L., … Litz, B. T. (2016). Effect of group vs individual cognitive processing therapy in active-duty military seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 351(1), 13–22. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.2729
   Google Scholar
• Resick, P. A., Wachen, J. S., Mintz, J., Young-McCaughan, S., Roache, J. D., Borah, A. M., … Peterson, A. L. (2015). A randomized clinical trial of group cognitive processing therapy compared with group present-centered therapy for PTSD among active duty military personnel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(6), 1058–1068. doi:10.1037/ccp0000016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzo, A., Newman, B., Parsons, T., Difede, J., Reger, G., Holloway, K., … Bordnick, P. (2009). Development and clinical results from the virtual Iraq exposure therapy application for PTSD. Marina del Rey, CA: University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, N. P., Roberts, P. A., Jones, N., & Bisson, J. I. (2015). Psychological interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 38, 25–38. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J., Engel, C. C., Foa, E. B., Shea, M. T., Chow, B. K., … Bernardy, N. (2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA : the Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(8), 820–830. doi:10.1001/jama.297.8.820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sher, L., Braquehais, M. D., & Casas, M. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and suicide in Veterans. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 79(2), 92–97. doi:10.3949/ccjm.79a.11069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 23(4), 323–355. doi:10.3102/10769986023004323
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, D. C., Hall, J. A., Jang, M., & Arndt, S. (2009). Therapist adherence to a motivational-interviewing intervention improves treatment entry for substance-misusing adolescents with low problem perception. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70(1), 101–105. doi:10.15288/jsad.2009.70.101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenkamp, M. M., & Litz, B. T. (2013). Psychotherapy for military-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Review of the evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(1), 45–53. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundin, J., Fear, N. T., Iversen, A., Rona, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2010). PTSD after deployment to Iraq: Conflicting rates, conflicting claims. Psychological Medicine, 40(3), 367–382. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990791
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suris, A., Link-Malcolm, J., Chard, K., Ahn, C., & North, C. (2013). A randomized clinical trial of cognitive processing therapy for Veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 28–37. doi:10.1002/jts
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanielian, T., & Jaycox, L. H. (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Tarescavage, A. M., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (2014). Psychotherapeutic outcomes measures: A critical review for practitioners. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(9), 808–830. doi:10.1002/jclp.22080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuerk, P. W., Yoder, M., Grubaugh, A., Myrick, H., Hamner, M., & Acierno, R. (2011). Prolonged exposure therapy for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: An examination of treatment effectiveness for Veterans of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 397–403. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U. S. Air Force. (2005). Air Force Instruction 40-402: Protection of human subjects in biomedical and behavioral research. Falls Church, VA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• van Minnen, A., Hendriks, L., & Olff, M. (2010). When do trauma experts choose exposure therapy for PTSD patients? A controlled study of therapist and patient factors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(4), 312–320. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veterans Administration and Department of Defense. (2010). VA/DoD clinical practice guidelines for management of post-traumatic stress. Wahington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Wachen, J. S., Dondanville, K. A., Pruiksma, K. E., Molino, A., Carson, C. S., Blankenship, A. E., … Resick, P. A. (2015). Implementing cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder with active duty U.S. military personnel: Special considerations and case examples. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 23(2), 133–147. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2015.08.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller, G. (2009). Evidence-based treatment and therapist drift. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(2), 119–127. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waltz, J., Addis, M. E., Koerner, K., & Jacobson, N. S. (1993). Testing the integrity of a psychotherapy protocol: Assessment of adherence and competence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(4), 620–630. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.4.620
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Huska, J., & Keane, T. M. (1991). The PTSD checklist military version (PLL-M). Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, E., Coll, J. E., & Metal, M. (2011). The influence of military culture and veteran worldviews on mental health treatment: Practice implications for combat veteran help-seeking and wellness. International Journal of Health Wellness, & Society, 1, 75–86. doi:10.18848/2156-8960/CGP/v01i02/41168
   Google Scholar
• Wilk, J. E., West, J. C., Duffy, F. F., Herrell, R. K., Rae, D. S., & Hoge, C. W. (2013). Use of evidence-based treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in Army behavioral healthcare. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 76(4), 336–348. doi:10.1521/psyc.2013.76.4.336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins, K. C., Lang, A. J., & Norman, S. B. (2011). Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions. Depression and Anxiety, 28(7), 596–606. doi:10.1002/da.20837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., Pratchett, L. C., Elmes, M. W., Lehrner, A., Daskalakis, N. P., Koch, E., … Bierer, L. M. (2014). Glucocorticoid-related predictors and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder treatment response in combat Veterans. Interface Focus, 4(5), 1–10. doi:10.1098/rsfs.2014.0048
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar