The Effect of Education on Age-Related Changes in Three Cognitive Domains: A Cross-Sectional Study in Primary Care

REFERENCES

• Angel , L. , Fay , S. , Bouazzaoui , B. , Baudouin , A. , & Isingrini , M. ( 2010 ). Protective role of educational level on episodic memory aging: An event-related potential study . Brain and Cognition , 74 ( 3 ), 312 – 323 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardila , A. , Ostrosky-Solis , F. , Rosselli , M. , & Gómez , C. ( 2000 ). Age-related cognitive decline during normal aging: The complex effect of education . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 15 ( 6 ), 495 – 513 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babcock , R. L. , & Salthouse , T. A. ( 1990 ). Effects of increased processing demands on age differences in working memory . Psychology of Aging , 5 ( 3 ), 421 – 428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batterham , P. J. , Mackinnon , A. J. , & Christensen , H. ( 2011 ). The effect of education on the onset and rate of terminal decline . Psychology of Aging , 26 ( 2 ), 339 – 350 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett , D. A. , Wilson , R. S. , Schneider , J. A. , Evans , D. A. , Mendes de Leon , C. F. , Arnold , S. E. , … Bienias , J. L. ( 2003 ). Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons . Neurology , 60 ( 12 ), 1909 – 1915 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford , A. , Kunik , M. E. , Schulz , P. , Williams , S. P. , & Singh , H. ( 2009 ). Missed and delayed diagnosis of dementia in primary care: Prevalence and contributing factors . Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders , 23 ( 4 ), 306 – 314 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brickman , A. M. , Siedlecki , K. L. , Muraskin , J. , Manly , J. J. , Luchsinger , J. A. , Yeung , L. K. , … Stern , Y. ( 2009 ). White matter hyperintensities and cognition: Testing the reserve hypothesis . Neurobiology of Aging , 32 ( 9 ), 1588 – 1598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner , R. L. ( 2004 ). Memory and executive function in aging and AD: Multiple factors that cause decline and reserve factors that compensate . Neuron , 44 ( 1 ), 195 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabeza , R. , Anderson , N. D. , Locantore , J. K. , & McIntosh , A. R. (2002). Aging gracefully: Compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults. Neuroimage , 17, 1394–1402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capitani , E. , Barbarotto , R. , & Laiacana , M. ( 1996 ). Does education influence age-related cognitive decline? A further inquiry . Developmental Neuropsychology , 12 , 231 – 240 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , P. , Ratcliff , G. , Belle , S. H. , Cauley , J. A. , DeKosky , S. T. , & Ganguli , M. ( 2000 ). Cognitive tests that best discriminate between presymptomatic AD and those who remain nondemented . Neurology , 55 ( 12 ), 1847 – 1853 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , H. ( 2001 ). What cognitive changes can be expected with normal aging? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 35 , 768 – 775 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , H. , Korten , A. E. , Jorm , A. F. , Henderson , A. S. , Jacomb , D. A. , Rodgers , B. , … Mackinnon , A. J. ( 1997 ). Education and decline in cognitive performance: Compensatory but not protective . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 12 , 323 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clapp , W. C. , Rubens , M. T. , Sabharwal , J. , & Gazzaley , A. ( 2011 ). Deficit in switching between functional brain networks underlies the impact of multitasking on working memory in older adults . The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA , 108 ( 17 ), 7212 – 7217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark , L. , Chamberlain , S. R. , & Sahakian , B. J. ( 2009 ). Neurocognitive mechanisms in depression: Implications for treatment . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 32 , 57 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delis , D. C. , Kramer , J. , Kaplan , E. , & Ober , B. A. ( 1986 ). The California Verbal Learning Test . San Antonio , TX : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Dotson , V. M. , Beydoun , M. A. , & Zonderman , A. B. ( 2010 ). Recurrent depressive symptoms and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment . Neurology , 75 ( 1 ), 27 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EClipSE Collaborative Members . ( 2010 ). Education, the brain and dementia: Neuroprotection or compensation? Brain , 133 , 2210 – 2216 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias , P. K. , Elias , M. F. , Robbins , M. A. , & Budge , M. M. ( 2004 ). Blood pressure-related cognitive decline: Does age make a difference? Hypertension , 44 ( 5 ), 631 – 636 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein , M. F. , Folstein , S. E. , & McHugh , P. R. ( 1975 ). ‘Mini-mental state’: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 12 , 189 – 198 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia , C. ( 1984 ). Alzheimer's disease: Problems in the clinical diagnosis. PhD dissertation, Faculty of Medicine of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal .
   Google Scholar
• Gazzaley , A. , Cooney , J. W. , Rissman , J. , & D'Esposito , M. ( 2005 ). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging . Nature Neuroscience , 8 ( 10 ), 1298 – 1300 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goh , J. O. , & Park , D. C. ( 2009 ). Neuroplasticity and cognitive aging: The scaffolding theory of aging and cognition . Restorative Neurology & Neuroscience , 27 , 391 – 403 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerreiro , M. , Silva , A. P. , Botelho , M. A. , Leitão , O. , Castro-Caldas , A. , & Garcia , C. ( 1994 ). Adaptação à população portuguesa da tradução do ‘Mini Mental State Examination’ (MMSE) [Adaptation to the Portuguese population of the translation of the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE)] . Revista Portuguesa de Neurologia , 1 , 9 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Jones , R. N. , Manly , J. , Glymour , M. M. , Rentz , D. M. , Jefferson A. L. , & Stern , Y. ( 2011 ). Conceptual and measurement challenges in research on cognitive reserve . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 17 , 1 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koepsell , T. D. , Kurland , B. F. , Harel , O. , Johnson , E. A. , Zhou , X. H. , & Kukull , W. A. ( 2008 ). Education, cognitive function, and severity of neuropathology in Alzheimer disease . Neurology , 70 ( 19 Pt. 2 ), 1732 – 1739 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuller , L. H. , Shemanski , L. , Manolio , T. , Haan , M. , Fried , L. , Bryan , N. , … Bhadelia , R. ( 1998 ). Relationship between ApoE, MRI finding, and cognitive function in the Cardiovascular Health Study . Stroke , 29 ( 2 ), 388 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , E. M. , Paul , R. H. , Moser , D. J. , Fletcher , T. D. , & Cohen , R. A. ( 2011 ). Influence of education on subcortical hyperintensities and global cognitive status in vascular dementia . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 9 , 1 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Lawton , M. P. , & Brody , E. M. ( 1969 ). Assessment of older people: Self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living . Gerontologist , 9 , 179 – 186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Carret , N. , Auriacombe , S. , Letenneur , L. , Bergua , V. , Dartiques , J. F. , & Fabriqoule , C. ( 2005 ). Influence of education on the pattern of cognitive deterioration in AD patients: The cognitive reserve hypothesis . Brain & Cognition , 57 ( 2 ), 120 – 126 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Libon , D. J. , Mattson , R. E. , Glosser , G. , Kaplan , E. , Malamut , B. L. , Sands , L. P. , … Cloud , B. S. ( 1996 ). A nine-word dementia version of the California Verbal Learning Test . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 10 ( 3 ), 237 – 244 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manly , J. J. , Touradji , P. , Tang , M. X. , & Stern , Y. ( 2003 ). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 ( 5 ), 680 – 690 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins , I. P. , Castro-Caldas , A. , Townes , B. D. , Ferreira , G. , Rodrigues , P. , Marques , S. , … Derouen , T. ( 2005 ). Age and sex differences in neurobehavioral performance: A study of Portuguese elementary school children . International Journal of Neuroscience , 115 , 1687 – 1709 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins , I. P. , Loureiro , C. , Rodrigues , S. , & Dias , B. ( 2005 ). Nomeação de faces famosas: Capacidade de evocação de nomes próprios numa amostra populacional Portuguesa [Naming of famous faces: Retrieval of proper names in a Portuguese population sample] . Psicologia, Educação e Cultura , 9 ( 2 ), 421 – 436 .
   Google Scholar
• McArdle , J. J. , Ferrer-Caja , E. , Hamagami , F. , Woodcock , R. W. ( 2002 ). Comparative longitudinal structural analysis of the growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span . Developmental Psychology , 38 ( 1 ), 115 – 142 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman , M. A. , Evans , J. D. , Miller , S. W. , & Heaton , R. K. ( 2000 ). Demographically corrected norms for the California Verbal Learning Test . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 22 ( 1 ), 80 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , D. C. , & Reuter-Lorenz , P. ( 2009 ). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding . Annual Review of Psychology , 60 , 173 – 196 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedrosa , H. , De Sa , A. , Guerreiro , M. , Maroco , J. , Simões , M. R. , Galasko , D. , … Mendonça , A. ( 2010 ). Functional evaluation distinguishes MCI patients from healthy elderly people: The ADCS/MCI/ADL scale . Journal of Nutrition and Healthy Aging , 14 ( 8 ), 703 – 709 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontón , M. O. , Gonzalez , J. J. , Hernandez , I. , Herrera , L. , & Higareda , I. ( 2000 ). Factor analysis of the Neuropsychological Screening Battery for Hispanics (NeSBHIS) . Applied Neuropsychology: Adult , 7 ( 1 ), 32 – 39 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Porteus , S. D. ( 1959 ). The maze test and clinical psychology . Palo Alto , CA : Pacific Books .
   Google Scholar
• Reitan , R. ( 1958 ). Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 8 , 271 – 276 .
   Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. ( 1996 ). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition . Psychology Review , 103 ( 3 ), 403 – 428 .
   Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. ( 2004 ). What and when of cognitive aging . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 13 , 140 – 144 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T A. ( 2006 ). Mental exercise and mental aging . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 1 , 68 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. ( 2009 ). When does age-related cognitive decline begin? Neurobiology of Aging , 30 ( 4 ), 507 – 514 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satz , P. , Cole , M. A. , Hardy , D. J. , & Rassovsky , Y. ( 2010 ). Brain and cognitive reserve: Mediator(s) and construct validity, a critique . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 2 , 1 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Schmand , B. , Jonker , C. , Geerlings , M. I. , & Lindeboom , J. (1997). Subjective memory complaints in the elderly: Depressive symptoms and future dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry , 171, 373–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , R. , Grazer , A. , Enzinger , C. , Ropele , S. , Homayoon , N. , Pluta-Fuerst , A. , … Fazakes , F. ( 2011 ). MRI-detected white matter lesions: Do they really matter? Journal of Neural Transmission , 118 ( 5 ), 673 – 681 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siedlecki , K. L. , Stern , Y. , Reuben , A. , Sacco , R. L. , Elkind , M. S. , & Wright , C. B. ( 2009 ). Construct validity of cognitive reserve in a multiethnic cohort: The Northern Manhattan Study . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 15 ( 4 ), 558 – 569 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Springer , M. V. , McIntosh , A. R. , Winocur , G. , & Grady , C. L. ( 2005 ). The relation between brain activity during memory tasks and years of education in young and older adults . Neuropsychology , 19 ( 2 ), 181 – 192 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. ( 2002 ). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 ( 3 ), 448 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. ( 2006 ). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease . Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders , 20 ( 2 ), 112 – 117 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. ( 2009 ). Cognitive reserve . Neuropsychologia , 47 ( 10 ), 2015 – 2028 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. , Albert , S. , Tang , M.-X. , & Tsai , W.-Y. ( 1999 ). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology , 53 , 1942 – 1947 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. , Gurland , B. , Tatemichi , T. K. , Tang , M. X. , Wilder , D. , & Mayeux , R. ( 1994 ). Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease . Journal of the American Medical Association , 271 ( 13 ), 1004 – 1010 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop , J. R. ( 1935 ). Studies of interference in serial verbal reaction . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 18 , 643 – 662 .
   Google Scholar
• Tucker , A. M. , & Stern , Y. ( 2011 ). Cognitive reserve in aging . Current Alzheimer Research , 8 ( 4 ), 354 – 360 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker-Drob , E. M. ( 2011 ). Neurocognitive functions and everyday functions change together in old age . Neuropsychology , 25 ( 3 ), 368 – 377 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela , M. J. , & Sachdev , P. ( 2006 ). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review . Psychology & Medicine , 36 ( 4 ), 441 – 454 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vemuri , P. , Weigand , S. D. , Przybelski , S. A. , Knopman , D. S. , Smith , G. E. , Trojanowski , J. Q. , … Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative . ( 2011 ). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers are independent determinants of cognition . Brain , 134 ( Pt5 ), 1479 – 1492 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ware , J. E. , & Sherbourne , C. D. ( 1992 ). The MOS 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual framework and item selection . Medical Care , 30 , 473 – 483 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. ( 1997a ). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( ) , 3rd ed. . San Antonio , TX : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. ( 1997b ). Wechsler Memory Scale–Third Edition manual . San Antonio , TX : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. ( 1999 ). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence manual . San Antonio , TX : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Yesavage , J. , Brink , T. , Rose , T. , Lum , O. , Huang , V. , Adey , M. , … Leirer , V. O. ( 1983 ). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report . Journal of Psychiatry Research , 17 ( 1 ), 37 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar