Ocular Toxoplasmosis

References

• Park YH, Nam HW. Clinical features and treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Korean J Parasitol. 2013;51(4):393–399. doi:10.3347/kjp.2013.51.4.393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O. Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 2004;363(9425):1965–1976. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16412-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commodaro AG, Belfort RN, Rizzo LV, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis: an update and review of the literature. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(2):345–350. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762009000200030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greigert V, Pfaff AW, Sauer A, Filisetti D, Candolfi E, Villard O. Biological diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis: a nine-year retrospective observational study. mSphere. 2019; 4(5): doi: 10.1128/mSphere.00636-19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourdin C, Busse A, Kouamou E, et al. PCR-based detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in blood and ocular samples for diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52(11):3987–3991. doi:10.1128/JCM.01793-14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakob E, Reuland MS, Mackensen F, et al. Uveitis subtypes in a German interdisciplinary uveitis center–analysis of 1916 patients. J Rheumatol. 2009;36(1):127–136. doi:10.3899/jrheum.080102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates WB, Chiong F, Zagora S, Post JJ, Wakefield D, McCluskey P. Ocular toxoplasmosis in a tertiary referral center in Sydney Australia-clinical features, treatment, and prognosis. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2019;8(4):280–284. doi:10.1097/APO.0000000000000244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freyre A, Falcon J. Massive excystation of Toxoplasma gondii sporozoites. Exp Parasitol. 2004;107(1–2):72–77. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2004.03.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland GN. Ocular toxoplasmosis: a global reassessment. Part I: epidemiology and course of disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(6):973–988. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2003.09.040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rougier S, Montoya JG, Peyron F. Lifelong persistence of toxoplasma cysts: a questionable dogma? Trends Parasitol. 2017;33(2):93–101. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2016.10.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson DJ, Hutchison WM. The host-parasite relationship of Toxoplasma gondii in the brains of chronically infected mice. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol. 1987;411(1):39–43. doi:10.1007/BF00734512.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watts E, Zhao Y, Dhara A, Eller B, Patwardhan A, Sinai AP. Novel approaches reveal that toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites within tissue cysts are dynamic and replicating entities in vivo. mBio. 2015;6(5):e01155–15. doi:10.1128/mBio.01155-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins ES. Ocular toxoplasmosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1973;57(1):1–17. doi:10.1136/bjo.57.1.1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder HC. Toxoplasma chorioretinitis in adults. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1952;48(2):127–136. doi:10.1001/archopht.1952.00920010132001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert RE. Is ocular toxoplasmosis caused by prenatal or postnatal infection? Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(2):224–226. doi:10.1136/bjo.84.2.224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greigert V, Bittich-Fahmi F, Pfaff AW, Taylan Ozkan A. Pathophysiology of ocular toxoplasmosis: facts and open questions. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14(12):e0008905. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0008905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachenmaier SM, Deli MA, Meer M, Liesenfeld O. Intracellular transport of Toxoplasma gondii through the blood-brain barrier. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;232(1–2):119–130. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.10.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pleyer U, Schluter D, Manz M. Ocular toxoplasmosis: recent aspects of pathophysiology and clinical implications. Ophthalmic Res. 2014;52(3):116–123. doi:10.1159/000363141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garweg JG, Candolfi E. Immunopathology in ocular toxoplasmosis: facts and clues. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(2):211–220. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762009000200014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez Fernandez V, Casini G, Bruschi F. Ocular toxoplasmosis: mechanisms of retinal infection and experimental models. Parasitologia. 2021;1(2):50–60. doi:10.3390/parasitologia1020007.
   Google Scholar
• Song HB, Jung BK, Kim JH, Lee YH, Choi MH, Kim JH. Investigation of tissue cysts in the retina in a mouse model of ocular toxoplasmosis: distribution and interaction with glial cells. Parasitol Res. 2018;117(8):2597–2605. doi:10.1007/s00436-018-5950-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furtado JM, Ashander LM, Mohs K, Chipps TJ, Appukuttan B, Smith JR. Toxoplasma gondii migration within and infection of human retina. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e54358. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maenz M, Schluter D, Liesenfeld O, Schares G, Gross U, Pleyer U. Ocular toxoplasmosis past, present and new aspects of an old disease. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2014;39:77–106. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.12.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozgonul C, Besirli CG. Recent developments in the diagnosis and treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmic Res. 2017;57(1):1–12. doi:10.1159/000449169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubey JP, Lago EG, Gennari SM, Su C, Jones JL. Toxoplasmosis in humans and animals in Brazil: high prevalence, high burden of disease, and epidemiology. Parasitology. 2012;139(11):1375–1424. doi:10.1017/S0031182012000765.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen E, Kijlstra A, Stanford M. Epidemiology of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2012;20(2):68–75. doi:10.3109/09273948.2012.661115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubey JP, Jones JL. Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the United States. Int J Parasitol. 2008;38(11):1257–1278. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.03.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silveira C, Belfort RsJr., Muccioli C, et al. A follow-up study of Toxoplasma gondii infection in southern Brazil. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(3):351–354. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00830-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De-la-torre A, Lopez-Castillo CA, Gomez-Marin JE. Incidence and clinical characteristics in a Colombian cohort of ocular toxoplasmosis. Eye (Lond). 2009;23(5):1090–1093. doi:10.1038/eye.2008.219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfaff AW, De-la-torre A, Rochet E, et al. New clinical and experimental insights into old world and neotropical ocular toxoplasmosis. Int J Parasitol. 2014;44(2):99–107. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.09.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su C, Khan A, Zhou P, et al. Globally diverse toxoplasma gondii isolates comprise six major clades originating from a small number of distinct ancestral lineages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(15):5844–5849. doi:10.1073/pnas.1203190109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrmann DC, Maksimov P, Hotop A, et al. Genotyping of samples from German patients with ocular, cerebral and systemic toxoplasmosis reveals a predominance of toxoplasma gondii type II. Int J Med Microbiol. 2014;304(7):911–916. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2014.06.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan A, Jordan C, Muccioli C, et al. Genetic divergence of Toxoplasma gondii strains associated with ocular toxoplasmosis, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(6):942–949. doi:10.3201/eid1206.060025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De-la-torre A, Sauer A, Pfaff AW, et al. Severe South American ocular toxoplasmosis is associated with decreased Ifn-gamma/Il-17a and increased Il-6/Il-13 intraocular levels. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(11):e2541. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Machado Azevedo DO, Campos WR, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis in southeastern Brazil: results of early ophthalmologic examination of a large cohort of neonates. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(11):2199–205 e1. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.04.042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford MR, Tan HK, Gilbert RE. Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis presenting in childhood: clinical findings in a UK survey. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(12):1464–1467. doi:10.1136/bjo.2005.083543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ongkosuwito JV, Bosch-Driessen EH, Kijlstra A, Rothova A. Serologic evaluation of patients with primary and recurrent ocular toxoplasmosis for evidence of recent infection. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;128(4):407–412. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(99)00266-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett AJ. Multiple cases of acquired toxoplasmosis retinitis presenting in an outbreak. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(6):1032–1037. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(98)96004-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neves ES, Bicudo LN, Curi AL, et al. Acute acquired toxoplasmosis: clinical-laboratorial aspects and ophthalmologic evaluation in a cohort of immunocompetent patients. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(2):393–396. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762009000200039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe RE, Brooks RG, Dorfman RF, Remington JS. Clinical spectrum in 107 cases of toxoplasmic lymphadenopathy. Rev Infect Dis. 1987;9(4):754–774. doi:10.1093/clinids/9.4.754.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bosch-Driessen LE, Berendschot TT, Ongkosuwito JV, Rothova A. Ocular toxoplasmosis: clinical features and prognosis of 154 patients. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(5):869–878. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(02)00990-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedmann CT, Knox DL. Variations in recurrent active toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1969;81(4):481–493. doi:10.1001/archopht.1969.00990010483005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim M, Choi SY, Won JY, Park YH. Patterns of ocular toxoplasmosis presenting at a tertiary eye care center in Korean patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97(15):e0399. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000010399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balasundaram MB. Outbreak of acquired ocular toxoplasmosis involving 248 patients. Arch Ophthalmol. 2010;128(1):28–32. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.354.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Atmaca LS, Simsek T, Batioglu F. Clinical features and prognosis in ocular toxoplasmosis. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2004;48(4):386–391. doi:10.1007/s10384-003-0069-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park YH, Han JHP, Nam HW. Clinical features of ocular toxoplasmosis in Korean patients. Korean J Parasitol. 2011;49(2):167–171. doi: 10.3347/kjp.2011.49.2.167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felix JP, Lira RP, Zacchia RS, Toribio JM, Nascimento MA, Arieta CE. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus placebo to reduce the risk of recurrences of Toxoplasma gondii retinochoroiditis: randomized controlled clinical trial. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;157(4):762–6 e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2013.12.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodds EM, Holland GN, Stanford MR, et al. Intraocular inflammation associated with ocular toxoplasmosis: relationships at initial examination. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(6):856–65 e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.09.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodossiadis P, Kokolakis S, Ladas I, Kollia AC, Chatzoulis D, Theodossiadis G. Retinal vascular involvement in acute toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Int Ophthalmol. 1995;19(1):19–24. doi:10.1007/BF00156414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith JR, Cunningham ETsJr. Atypical presentations of ocular toxoplasmosis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2002;13(6):387–392. doi:10.1097/00055735-200212000-00008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaza H, Patel A, Pathengay A. Persistence of Kyrieleis arteriolitis in bilateral acute retinal necrosis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(9):1974. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_2009_19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckert GU, Melamed J, Menegaz B. Optic nerve changes in ocular toxoplasmosis. Eye (Lond). 2007;21(6):746–751. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford MR. The visual field in toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(7):812–814. doi:10.1136/bjo.2004.055756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonfioli AA, Orefice F. Toxoplasmosis. Semin Ophthalmol. 2005;20(3):129–141. doi:10.1080/08820530500231961.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De-la-torre A, Gomez-Marin J. Disease of the year 2019: ocular toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020;28(7):1031–1039. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1735450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Accorinti M, Bruscolini A, Pirraglia MP, Liverani M, Caggiano C. Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in an Italian referral center. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19(5):824–830. doi:10.1177/112067210901900522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland GN, Crespi CM, ten Dam-van Loon N, et al. Analysis of recurrence patterns associated with toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(6):1007–1013. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.01.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield D, Cunningham ETsJr., Pavesio C, Garweg JG, Zierhut M. Controversies in ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19(1):2–9. doi:10.3109/09273948.2011.547157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland GN, Engstrom REsJr., Glasgow BJ, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106(6):653–667. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(88)90697-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagliuso DJ, Teich SA, Friedman AH, Orellana J. Ocular toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1990;88:63–86. discussion −8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kovacevic-Pavicevic D, Radosavljevic A, Ilic A, Kovacevic I, Djurkovic-Djakovic O. Clinical pattern of ocular toxoplasmosis treated in a referral centre in Serbia. Eye (Lond). 2012;26(5):723–728. doi:10.1038/eye.2012.20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simsek M, Ozdal PC, Kocer AM. Optic nerve involvement in ocular toxoplasmosis: 12 year data from a tertiary referral center in Turkey. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2019;82(4):302–309. doi:10.5935/0004-2749.20190058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elkins BS, Holland GN, Opremcak EM, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis misdiagnosed as cytomegalovirus retinopathy in immunocompromised patients. Ophthalmology. 1994;101(3):499–507. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(13)31267-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Dodds EM, Orefice F. Review for disease of the year: differential diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19(3):171–179. doi:10.3109/09273948.2011.581407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta V, Gupta A, Rao NA. Intraocular tuberculosis–an update. Surv Ophthalmol. 2007;52(6):561–587. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2007.08.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford MR. Reliability of expert interpretation of retinal photographs for the diagnosis of toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86(6):636–639. doi:10.1136/bjo.86.6.636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler NJ, Furtado JM, Winthrop KL, Smith JR. Ocular toxoplasmosis II: clinical features, pathology and management. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2013;41(1):95–108. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2012.02838.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greigert V, Di Foggia E, Filisetti D, et al. When biology supports clinical diagnosis: review of techniques to diagnose ocular toxoplasmosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2019;103(7):1008–1012. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2019-313884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garweg JG. Ocular Toxoplasmosis: an Update. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2016;233(4):534–539. doi:10.1055/s-0041-111821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villard O, Cimon B, L’Ollivier C, et al. Serological diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection: recommendations from the French National Reference Center for toxoplasmosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;84(1):22–33. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2015.09.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villard O, Filisetti D, Roch-Deries F, Garweg J, Flament J, Candolfi E. Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, immunoblotting, and PCR for diagnosis of toxoplasmic chorioretinitis. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(8):3537–3541. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.8.3537-3541.2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garweg JG, de Groot-mijnes JD, Montoya JG. Diagnostic approach to ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19(4):255–261. doi:10.3109/09273948.2011.595872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farhadi A, Haniloo A, Fazaeli A, Moradian S, Farhadi M. PCR-based diagnosis of toxoplasma parasite in ocular infections having clinical indications of toxoplasmosis. Iran J Parasitol. 2017;12:56–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montoya JG, Parmley S, Liesenfeld O, Jaffe GJ, Remington JS. Use of the polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(8):1554–1563. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(99)90453-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper TW, Miller D, Schiffman JC, Davis JL. Polymerase chain reaction analysis of aqueous and vitreous specimens in the diagnosis of posterior segment infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(1):140–7 e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.07.043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De-la-torre A, Valdes-Camacho J, de Mesa CL, et al. Coinfections and differential diagnosis in immunocompetent patients with uveitis of infectious origin. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):91. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3613-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez Marin JE, Zuluaga JD, Pechene Campo EJ, Trivino J, De-la-torre A. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in ocular and ganglionar toxoplasmosis and the effect of therapeutics for prevention of ocular involvement in South American setting. Acta Trop. 2018;184:83–87. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.01.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastien P. Molecular diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002;96(Suppl 1):S205–15. doi:10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90078-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sardarian K, Maghsood AH, Farimani M, et al. Evaluation of toxoplasma gondii B1 gene in placental tissues of pregnant women with acute toxoplasmosis. Adv Biomed Res. 2018;7:119. doi:10.4103/abr.abr_58_18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Camilo LM, Pereira-Chioccola VL, Gava R, et al. Molecular diagnosis of symptomatic toxoplasmosis: a 9-year retrospective and prospective study in a referral laboratory in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis. 2017;21(6):638–647. doi:10.1016/j.bjid.2017.07.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomares C, Estran R, Press CJ, et al. Is real-time PCR targeting rep 529 suitable for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in patients infected with non-Type II strains in North America? J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(2). doi:10.1128/JCM.01223-19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belaz S, Gangneux JP, Dupretz P, Guiguen C, Robert-Gangneux F, Gilligan PH. A 10-year retrospective comparison of two target sequences, REP-529 and B1, for Toxoplasma gondii detection by quantitative PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53(4):1294–1300. doi:10.1128/JCM.02900-14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robert-Gangneux F, Darde ML. Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012;25(2):264–296. doi:10.1128/CMR.05013-11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fekkar A, Ajzenberg D, Bodaghi B, et al. Direct genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in ocular fluid samples from 20 patients with ocular toxoplasmosis: predominance of type II in France. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(4):1513–1517. doi:10.1128/JCM.02196-10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Groot-Mijnes JD, Rothova A, Van Loon AM, et al. Polymerase chain reaction and Goldmann-Witmer coefficient analysis are complimentary for the diagnosis of infectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(2):313–318. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2005.09.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang ZD, Liu HH, Ma ZX, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in immunocompromised Patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:389. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.00389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Bird AC, Spaide RF. Fundus autofluorescence imaging: review and perspectives. Retina. 2008;28(3):385–409. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318164a907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandao-de-resende C, Balasundaram MB, Narain S, Mahendradas P, Vasconcelos-Santos DV. Multimodal imaging in ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020;28(8):1196–1204. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1737142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathis T, Delaunay B, Favard C, Denis P, Kodjikian L. Hyperautofluorescent spots in acute ocular toxoplasmosis: a new indicator of outer retinal inflammation. Retina. 2020;40(12):2396–2402. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000002759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spaide RF, Koizumi H, Pozzoni MC. Enhanced depth imaging spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(4):496–500. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.05.032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho DY, Nam W. A case of ocular toxoplasmosis imaged with spectral domain optical coherence tomography. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2012;26(1):58–60. doi:10.3341/kjo.2012.26.1.58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park JH, Lee SY, Lee EK. Morphological characteristics of ocular toxoplasmosis and its regression pattern on swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography: a case report. BMC Ophthalmol. 2019;19(1):199. doi:10.1186/s12886-019-1209-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Oliveira Dias JR, Campelo C, Novais EA, et al. New findings useful for clinical practice using swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography in the follow-up of active ocular toxoplasmosis. Int J Retina Vitreous. 2020;6:30. doi:10.1186/s40942-020-00231-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerges TK. Ocular toxoplasmosis: an update on diagnosis, multimodal imaging and therapy. IntechOpen. 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Vezzola D, Allegrini D, Borgia A, et al. Swept-source optical coherence tomography and optical coherence tomography angiography in acquired toxoplasmic chorioretinitis: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2018;12(1):358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez AL, Lozada RA, Emanuelli A, Oliver AL. Optical coherence tomography angiography findings in macular toxoplasma retinochoroiditis: a case report. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep. 2020;19:100764. doi:10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100764.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sudharshan S, Ganesh SK, Biswas J. Current approach in the diagnosis and management of posterior uveitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2010;58(1):29–43. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.58470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iijima H, Tsukahara Y, Imasawa M. Angiographic findings in eyes with active ocular toxoplasmosis. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1995;39:402–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atmaca LS, Simsek T, Atmaca Sonmez P, Sonmez K. Fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography in ocular toxoplasmosis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244(12):1688–1691. doi:10.1007/s00417-006-0345-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auer C, Bernasconi O, Herbort CP. Indocyanine green angiography features in toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Retina. 1999;19(1):22–29. doi:10.1097/00006982-199901000-00004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auer C, Bernasconi O, Herbort CP. Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: new insights provided by indocyanine green angiography. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:131–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland GN, Lewis KG. An update on current practices in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134(1):102–114. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01526-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guex-Crosier Y. Update on the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Int J Med Sci. 2009;6(3):140–142. doi:10.7150/ijms.6.140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morais FB, Arantes T, Muccioli C. Current practices in ocular toxoplasmosis: a survey of Brazilian uveitis specialists. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(2):317–323. doi:10.1080/09273948.2016.1215471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engstrom REsJr., Holland GN, Nussenblatt RB, Jabs DA. Current practices in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;111(5):601–610. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(14)73706-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLeod R, Boyer K, Karrison T, et al. Outcome of treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis, 1981-2004: the national collaborative Chicago-based, congenital toxoplasmosis study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(10):1383–1394. doi:10.1086/501360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helfenstein M, Zweifel S, Barthelmes D, Meier F, Fehr J, Boni C. Ocular toxoplasmosis: therapy-related adverse drug reactions and their management. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2017;234(4):556–560. doi:10.1055/s-0042-123717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkowski PK, Brydak-Godowska J, Basiak W, et al. The impact of short-term, intensive antifolate treatment (with pyrimethamine and sulfadoxine) and antibiotics followed by long-term, secondary antifolate prophylaxis on the rate of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis recurrence. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(8):e0004892. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faucher B, Garcia-Meric P, Franck J, et al. Long-term ocular outcome in congenital toxoplasmosis: a prospective cohort of treated children. J Infect. 2012;64(1):104–109. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2011.10.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villena I, Aubert, D., Leroux, B., Dupouy, D., Talmud, M., Chemla, C., Trenque, T., Schmit, G., Quereux, C., Guenounou, M. and Pluot, M. Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis: follow-up of 78 cases between 1980 and 1997. Reims Toxoplasmosis Group. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998;30(3):295–300. doi:10.1080/00365549850160963.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eyles DE, Coleman N. Antibiotics in the treatment of toxoplasmosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1953;2(1):64–69. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1953.2.64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothova A, Meenken C, Buitenhuis HJ, et al. Therapy for ocular toxoplasmosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;115(4):517–523. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(14)74456-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasper S, Vedula SS, John SS, Horo S, Sepah YJ, Nguyen QD. Corticosteroids as adjuvant therapy for ocular toxoplasmosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(4):CD007417. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007417.pub2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soheilian M, Sadoughi MM, Ghajarnia M, et al. Prospective randomized trial of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole versus pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine in the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(11):1876–1882. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2005.05.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes Felix JP, Cavalcanti Lira RP, Grupenmacher AT, et al. Long-term results of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus placebo to reduce the risk of recurrent toxoplasma gondii retinochoroiditis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2020;213:195–202. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2019.12.025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford MR, See SE, Jones LV, Gilbert RE. Antibiotics for toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: an evidence-based systematic review. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(5):926–31; quiz 31–2. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00083-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosch-Driessen LH, Verbraak FD, Suttorp-Schulten MS, et al. A prospective, randomized trial of pyrimethamine and azithromycin vs pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine for the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134(1):34–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araujo FG, Shepard RM, Remington JS. In vivo activity of the macrolide antibiotics azithromycin, roxithromycin and spiramycin against Toxoplasma gondii. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1991;10(6):519–524. doi:10.1007/BF01963942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huskinson-Mark J, Araujo FG, Remington JS. Evaluation of the effect of drugs on the cyst form of toxoplasma gondii. J Infect Dis. 1991;164(1):170–171. doi:10.1093/infdis/164.1.170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lashay A, Mirshahi A, Parandin N, et al. A prospective randomized trial of azithromycin versus trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in treatment of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2017;29(2):120–125. doi:10.1016/j.joco.2016.10.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabbara KF, et al. Ocular levels of azithromycin. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(12):1625–1628. doi:10.1001/archopht.116.12.1625.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hopkins S. Clinical toleration and safety of azithromycin. Am J Med. 1991;91(3A):40S–5S. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(91)90401-I.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoepelman IM, Schneider MM. Azithromycin: the first of the tissue-selective azalides. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 1995;5(3):145–167. doi:10.1016/0924-8579(95)00009-W.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guaraldo L, Villar BBF, Durao NMG, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis: adverse reactions to treatment in a Brazilian cohort. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2018;112(4):188–192. doi:10.1093/trstmh/try040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urtti A. Challenges and obstacles of ocular pharmacokinetics and drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2006;58(11):1131–1135. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2006.07.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radhika M, Mithal K, Bawdekar A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravitreal antibiotics in endophthalmitis. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2014;4:22. doi:10.1186/s12348-014-0022-z.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Souza CE, Nascimento H, Lima A, Muccioli C, Belfort RsJr. Intravitreal injection of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim associated with dexamethasone as an alternative therapy for ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(7):1041–1044. doi:10.1080/09273948.2017.1307420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choudhury H, Jindal A, Pathengay A, Bawdekar A, Albini T, Flynn HWsJr. The role of intravitreal trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2015;46(1):137–140. doi:10.3928/23258160-20150101-27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini SM, Abrishami M, Mehdi Zadeh M. Intravitreal clindamycin in the treatment of unresponsive zone one toxoplasmic chorioretinitis: a case report. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2014;16(11):e15428. doi:10.5812/ircmj.15428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamora YF, Arantes T, Reis FA, et al. Local treatment of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis with intravitreal clindamycin and dexamethasone. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2015;78(4):216–219. doi:10.5935/0004-2749.20150056.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soheilian M, Ramezani A, Azimzadeh A, et al. Randomized trial of intravitreal clindamycin and dexamethasone versus pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine, and prednisolone in treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(1):134–141. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.04.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rush R, Sheth S. Fulminant toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis following intravitreal triamcinolone administration. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2012;60(2):141–143. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.94059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhry SA, Gad N, Koren G. Toxoplasmosis and pregnancy. Can Fam Physician. 2014;60:334–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paquet C, Yudin MH, Yudin MH, Society of O, Gynaecologists of C. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: prevention, screening, and treatment. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2013;35(1):78–81. doi:10.1016/S1701-2163(15)31053-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Montoya JG, Remington JS. Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(4):554–566. doi:10.1086/590149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamma P. Toxoplasmosis. Pediatr Rev. 2007;28(12):470–471. doi:10.1542/pir.28.12.470.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maldonado YA, Read JS, Committee on Infectious D. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in the United States. Pediatrics. 2017; 139(2): doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-3860.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acers TE. Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: a double blind therapeutic study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1964;71:58–62. doi:10.1001/archopht.1964.00970010074010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins ES, Schofield PB, Smith CH. Treatment of uveitis with pyrimethamine (daraprim). Br J Ophthalmol. 1956;40(10):577–586. doi:10.1136/bjo.40.10.577.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feliciano-Alfonso JE, Munoz-Ortiz J, Marin-Noriega MA, et al. Safety and efficacy of different antibiotic regimens in patients with ocular toxoplasmosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):206. doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01758-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silveira C, Belfort RsJr., Muccioli C, et al. The effect of long-term intermittent trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole treatment on recurrences of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134(1):41–46. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01527-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silveira C, Muccioli C, Nussenblatt R, Belfort RsJr. The Effect of long-term intermittent Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole treatment on recurrences of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis: 10 years of follow-up. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2015;23(3):246–247. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.964422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes Felix JP, Cavalcanti Lira RP, Cosimo AB, Cardeal da Costa RL, Nascimento MA, Leite Arieta CE. Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole versus placebo in reducing the risk of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis recurrences: a three-year follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016;170:176–182. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2016.08.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pleyer U, Ness T, Garweg J. Prevention of recurrence of ocular toxoplasmosis - When? How? For whom? Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2020;237(5):599–604. doi:10.1055/a-1141-3812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reich M, Mackensen F. Ocular toxoplasmosis: background and evidence for an antibiotic prophylaxis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2015;26(6):498–505. doi:10.1097/ICU.0000000000000205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalogeropoulos D, Kalogeropoulos C, Sakkas H, et al. Pathophysiological aspects of ocular toxoplasmosis: host-parasite interactions. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2022;30(3):560–569.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauer A, Villard O, Creuzot-Garcher C, et al. Intraocular levels of interleukin 17A (IL-17A) and IL-10 as respective determinant markers of toxoplasmosis and viral uveitis. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2015;22(1):72–78. doi:10.1128/CVI.00423-14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar