Incidence of and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in diabetic clinic attenders

References

• Dwyer MS, Melton LJ III, Ballard DJ, Palumbo PJ, Trautmann JC, Chu CP. Incidence of diabetic retinopathy and blindness: A population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Diabetes Care. 1985; 8:316–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirart J. Diabetes mellitus and its degenerative complications: a prospective study of 4400 patients observed between 1947 and 1973. Diabetes Care. 1978; 1:168–99.
   Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin epidemiology study of diabetic retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984 102:527–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorsby A. The incidence and causes of blindness in England and Wales 1963–1968. Report on Public Health and Medical Subjects No. 114. London: HMSO, 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Keen H. Prevalence of blindness in diabetics. Roy Coll Phys London. 1972; 7:53–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Early photocoagulation for diabetic retinopathy ETDRS Report No. 9. Ophthalmology. 1991; 98:766–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BEK, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin epidemiology study of diabetic retinopathy. XI. The incidence of macular edema. Ophthalmology. 1989; 96:1501–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT): Update. Diabetes Care. 1990; 13:427–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DCCT Research Group. Epidemiology of severe hypoglycemia in the diabetes control and complications trial. Am J Med. 1991; 90:450–1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanko L, Golbourt U, Michaelson IC, Shapiro A, Yaari S. Prevalence and 15-year incidence of retinopathy and associated characteristics in middle-aged and elderly diabetic men. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983; 67:759–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard DJ, Melton LJ III, Dwyer MS, Trautmann JC, Chu CP, O'Fallon WM, Palumbo PJ. Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy: A population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Diabetes Care. 1986; 9:334–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borch-Johnsen K, Nissen H, Henriksen E, Kreiner S, Sailing N, Deckert T, et al. The natural history of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Denmark: 1. Long-term survival with and without late diabetic complications. Diabetic Med. 1987; 4:201–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blood glucose control and the evolution of diabetic retinopathy and albuminuria. A preliminary multicenter trial. New Engl J Med. 1984; 311:365–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee ET, Lee VS, Kingsley RM, Lu M, Russell D, Asat NR, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Oklahoma Indians with NIDDM: Incidence and risk factors. Diabetes Care. 1992; 15:1620–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foulds WS, McCuish A, Barrie T, Green F, McClure E, Barker JH. Diabetic retinopathy in the West of Scotland: its detection and prevalence, and the cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening programme. Health Bull (Edinb). 1983; 41:318–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kohner EM, Aldington SJ, Nugent Z. Retinopathy at entry in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) of maturity onset diabetes. Diabetes. 1987; 36(Suppl. I): 42A.
   Google Scholar
• Janghorbani M, Jones RB, Allison SP. Incidence of and risk factors for cataract among diabetic clinic attenders. Ophthalm Epidemiol. 2000; 7:13–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janghorbani M, Jones RB, Allison SP. Incidence of and risk factors for proliferative retinopathy and association with blindness among diabetic clinic attenders. Ophthalm Epidemiol. 2000; 7:225.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jones RB, Hedley A J, Peacock I, Allison SP, Tattersall RB. A computer-assisted register and information system for diabetes. Methods Inform Med. 1983; 22:4–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones RB, Gregory R, Jones EW, Kerr D, Allison SP, Mcleod A, et al. The quality and relevance of peripheral neuropathy data on a diabetic clinical information system. Diabetic Med. 1992; 9:934–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones RB, Hedley AJ. A computer in the diabetic clinic: completeness of data in a clinical information system for diabetes. Pract Diabetes. 1986 3:295–6.
   Google Scholar
• Norusis MJ. SPSS for Windows Base System User's Guide Release 6.0. Chicago, Illinois, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Mantel N, Haenszel W. Statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1959; 22:719–48.
   Google Scholar
• Lee ET. Statistical methods for survival data analysis. New York: Wiley, 1992: 104–30.
   Google Scholar
• Cox DR. Regression models and life table. Roy Statist Soc. 1977; 34:187–220.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan LJ, Meier P. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observation. Am Statist Assoc. 1958; 53:457–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner MJ, Altman DG. Statistics with confidence. London: British Medical Association, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Hurwitz B, Yudkin J. Diabetes care: whose responsibility? Br Med J. 1984; 289:1000–1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones RB, Hedley AJ, Gale E. Identification of diabetic patients treated with insulin or oral hypoglycaemics within a defined population. Comm Med. 1986; 8: 104–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stephenson J, Fuller JH. Microvascular and acute complications in IDDM patients: The EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study. Diabetologia. 1994; 37:278–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss SE, Klein R, Kessler SD, Richie KA. Comparison between ophthalmoscopy and fundus photography in determining severity of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1985; 92:62–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinyoun JL, Martin DC, Fujimoto WY, Leonetti DL. Ophthalmoscopy versus fundus photography for detecting and grading diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992; 33:1888–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harding SP, Broadbent DM, Neoh C, White MC, Vora J. Sensitivity and specificity of photography and direct ophthalmoscopy in screening for sight threatening eye disease: the Liverpool diabetes & eye disease study. Br Med J. 1995; 311: 1131–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornerup T. Studies in retinopathy An investigation of 1000 cases of diabetes. Acta Med Scand. 1955 37:81–101.
   Google Scholar
• Balodimos MC, Aiello LM, Gleason RE. Retinopathy in mild diabetes of long duration. Arch Ophthalmol. 1969; 81:660–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson SE, Nilsson JE, Frostberg E. The Kristanstad Survey. 11 Studies in a representative adult control group. Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1967; 409:1–42.
   Google Scholar
• West KM, Erdreich J, Stober JA. A detailed study of risk factors for retinopathy and nephropathy in diabetes. Diabetes. 1980; 29:501–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell SW, Tolbert B, Bennett J, Parsley TL. The prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy among Indians of Southwest Oklahoma. J Oklahoma State Med Assoc. 1989; 82:414–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Davis M, DeMets D. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984; 102:520–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• University Group Diabetes Program. A study of the effect of hypoglycaemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult onset diabetes. Diabetes. 1982; 31 (Suppl. 5): 1–81.
   Google Scholar
• The Kroc Collaborative Study Group. Diabetic retinopathy after two years of intensified insulin treatment: follow-up of the Kroc Collaborative study. J Am Med Assoc. 1988; 260:37–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauritzen T, Frost Larsen K, Larsen HW, Deckert T. Effect of 1 year of near-normal blood glucose levels on retinopathy in insulin- dependent diabetics. Lancet. 1983; 1:200–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauritzen T, Frost Larsen K, Larsen HW, Deckert T, Steno study Group. Ten years experience with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in relation to retinopathy and neuropathy. Diabetes. 1985; 34 (Suppl.3)74–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl-Jorgensen K, Brinchmann-Hansen O, Hanssen KF, Sandvik L, Aagenaes O, Aker Diabetes Group. Rapid tightening of blood glucose control leads to transient deterioration of retinopathy in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: the Oslo study. Br Med J. 1985; 290:811–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl-Jorgenson K, Brinchmann-Hanson O, Hanssen KF, Ganes T, Kierulf P, Smeland E, et al. Effect of near normoglycaemic for two years on progression of early diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy: the Oslo Study. Br Med J. 1986; 293:1995–9.
   Google Scholar
• Beck-Nielson H, Rickleson B, Mogenson CE, Olsen T, Ehlers N, Nielson CB, et al. Effect of insulin pump treatment for one year on renal function and retinal morphology in patients with IDDM. Diabetes Care. 1985; 8:585–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doft BH, Kingsley LA, Orchard TJ, Kuller L, Drash A, Becker D. The association between long-term diabetic control and early retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1984; 91:763–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard Williams J, Hillson RM, Bron A, Audry P, Mann JI, Hockaday TDR. Retinopathy is associated with higher glycaemia in maturity-onset type diabetes. Diabetologia. 1984; 27:198–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Singer DE, Godine DE, Hodgson-Harrington C, Perlmutter C. Retinopathy in older type II diabetics. Association with glucose control. Diabetes. 1986; 35:797–801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teuscher A, Schnell H, Wilson PWF. Incidence of diabetic retinopathy and relationship to baseline plasma glucose and blood pressure. Diabetes Care. 1988; 11:246–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chase HP, Jackson WE, Hoops SL, Cockerham RS, Archer PG, O'Brien D. Glucose control and the renal and retinal complications of insulin-dependent diabetes. J Am Med Assoc. 1989; 261:1155–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BEK, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Glycosylated haemoglobin predicts the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. J Am Med Assoc. 1988; 260:2864–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New Engl J Med. 1993; 329:977–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichard P, Berglund B, Britz A, Cars I, Nilsson BY, Rosenqvist U. Intensified conventional insulin treatment retards the microvascular complications of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM): the Stockholm Diabetes Interventions Study (SDIS) after 5 years. J Intern Med. 1991; 230:101–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R. Diabetes retinopathy. Ann Rev Publ Health. 1996; 17:137–58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lioyo CE, Becker B, Eilis D, Orchard TJ. Incidence of complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a survival analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 1996; 143:431–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki E, et al. Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomised prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1995; 28:103–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UKPDS Group. UK Prospective Diabetes Study 17: a nine-year update of a randomised, controlled trial on the effect of improved metabolic control on complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1996; 124:136–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UKPDS Group. UK Prospective Diabetes Study 33. Intensive blood glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 1998 352: 837–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakley WG, Pyke DA, Tattersall RB, Watkins PJ. Long term diabetes. Quart J Med. 1974; 43:145–56.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knowler WC, Bennet PH, Ballantine EJ. Increased incidence of retinopathy in diabetics with elevated blood pressure. New Engl J Med. 1980; 302:645–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalter-Leibovici O, Van Dyk DJ, Leibovici L, Loya N, Erman A, Kremer I, et al. Risk factors for development of diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy in Jewish IDDM patients. Diabetes. 1991; 40:204–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell P. Development and progression of diabetic eye disease in Newcastle (1977–1984): rates and risk factors. Austr NZ J Ophthalmol. 1985; 13:39–44.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jerneld B, Algvere P. Proteinuria and blood glucose levels in a population with diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1987; 104:283–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paetkau ME, Boyd TAS, Winship B, Grace M. Cigarette smoking and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes. 1977; 26:46–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West KM, Erdreich LS, Stober JA. Absence of a relationship between smoking and diabetic microangiopathy. Diabetes Care. 1980; 3:250–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabb MF, Gagliano DA, Sweeney HE. Diabetic retinopathy in blacks. Diabetes Care. 1990; 13:1202–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BEK. Association of cigarette smoking with diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1991; 14:119–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BEK, Davis MD. Is cigarette smoking associated with diabetic retinopathy? Am J Epidemiol. 1983; 118:228–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett AH, Britton JR, Leatherdale BA. Study of possible risk factors for severe retinopathy in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Br Med J. 1983; 287:529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of diabetic retinopathy study (DRS) findings. DRS report number 8. Ophthalmology. 1981; 88:583–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blankenship GW. Fifteen-year argon laser and xenon photocoagulation results of Bascom Palmer Eye Institute's patients participating in the diabetic retinopathy study Ophthalmology. 1991;98:125–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar