Multilevel Effects of Student and Classroom Factors on Elementary Science Achievement in Five Countries

References

• AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science)r . 1993 . Benchmarks for science literacy , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson‐Levitt , K. 2001 . Teaching culture , Cresskill, NJ : Hampton Press .
   Google Scholar
• Aun , T. K. , Riley II , J. P. , Atputhasamy , L. and Subramaniam , R. 2006 . School science achievement in Japan and Singapore: A tale of two cities . Educational Research for Policy and Practice , 5 (1) : 1 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Baker , D. , Fabrega , R. , Galindo , C. and Mishook , J. 2004 . Instructional time and national achievement: Cross‐national evidence . Prospects , 34 (3) : 311 – 334 .
   Google Scholar
• Baldi , S. , Jin , Y. , Skemer , M. , Green , P. J. , Herget , D. and Xie , H. 2007 . Highlights from PISA 2006: Performance of US 15‐year‐old students in science and mathematics literacy in an international context , Washington, DC : National Center for Education Statistics .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1997 . Self‐efficacy: The exercise of control , New York : W. H. Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Baron‐Cohen , S. 2003 . The essential difference: The truth about the male and female brain , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Beaton , A. E. , Martin , M. O. , Mullis , I. V. S. , Gonzalez , E. J. , Smith , T. A. and Kelly , L. D. 1996 . Science achievement in the middle school years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study , Chestnut Hill, MA : Centre for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy, Boston College .
   Google Scholar
• Biggs , J. and Moore , P. 1993 . The process of learning , Sydney : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bloom , B. S. 1976 . Human characteristics and school learning , New York : McGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Bodovski , K. and Farkas , G. 2007 . Mathematics growth in early elementary school: The roles of beginning knowledge, student engagement, and instruction . The Elementary School Journal , 108 (2) : 115 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bracey , G. W. 1998 . TIMSS: The message and the myths . Principal , 77 : 18 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Bray , M. 1999 . The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners , Paris : UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning .
   Google Scholar
• Bray , M. 2007 . “ Control of education: Issues and tensions in centralization and decentralization ” . In Comparative education: The dialectic of the global and the local , Edited by: Arnove , R. F. and Torres , C. A. 175 – 196 . Blue Ridge Summit, PA : Rowman & Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• Bray , M. and Kwok , P. 2003 . Demand for private supplementary tutoring: Conceptual considerations, and socio‐economic patterns in Hong Kong . Economics of Education Review , 22 (6) : 611 – 620 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Britner , S. L. and Pajares , F. 2001 . Self‐efficacy beliefs, motivation, race, and gender in middle school science . Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering , 7 : 271 – 285 .
   Google Scholar
• Britner , S. L. and Pajares , F. 2006 . Sources of science self‐efficacy beliefs of middle school students . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 43 (5) : 485 – 499 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , K. M. , Anfara , V. A. and Roney , K. 2004 . Student achievement in high performing, suburban middle schools and low performing, urban middle schools: Plausible explanations for the differences . Education and Urban Society , 36 (4) : 428 – 456 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnstein , L. , McDonnell , L. M. , Van Winkle , J. , Ormseth , T. , Mirocha , J. and Guiton , G. 1995 . Validating national curriculum indicators , Santa Monica, CA : Rand Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , J. R. and Wu , R. 1994 . Gifted Chinese girls get the best mix of family processes to bolster their math achievement . International Journal of Educational Research , 21 (7) : 685 – 696 .
   Google Scholar
• Carroll , J. 1963 . A model for school learning . Teacher College Record , 64 : 723 – 733 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coates , D. 2003 . Education production functions using instructional time as an input . Education Economics , 11 (3) : 273 – 292 .
   Google Scholar
• Coleman , J. S. , Campbell , E. Q. , Hobson , C. J. , McPartland , J. , Mood , A. M. , Weinfeld , F. D. and York , R. L. 1966 . Equality of educational opportunity , Washington, DC : US Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• Condron , D. J. and Roscigno , V. J. 2003 . Disparities within: Unequal spending and achievement in an urban school district . Sociology of Education , 76 (1) : 18 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor , C. M. , Rice , D. C. , Canto , A. , Underwood , P. , Kaya , S. , Fishman , B. and Morrison , F. J. forthcoming . “ Development of a multidimensional model of science instruction to explore effects of science instruction on literacy development (manuscript in review) ” .
   Google Scholar
• Croninger , R. G. , Rice , J. K. , Rathbun , A. and Nishio , M. 2007 . Teacher qualifications and early learning: Effects of certification, degree, and experience on first‐grade student achievement . Economics of Education Review , 26 (3) : 312 – 324 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels , D. H. and Perry , K. E. 2003 . “Learner‐centered” according to children . Theory into Practice , 42 (2) : 102 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling‐Hammond , L. 2000 . Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence . Education Policy Analysis Archives , 8 (1) Retrieved March 10, 2006, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/
   Google Scholar
• Darling‐Hammond , L. and Sykes , G. 2003 . Wanted: A national teacher supply policy for education: The right to meet the “highly qualified teacher” challenge . Education Policy Analysis Archives , 11 (33) Retrieved August 3, 2008, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n33/
   Google Scholar
• DeBacker , T. K. and Nelson , R. M. 2000 . Motivation to learn science: Differences related to gender, class type, and ability . Journal of Educational Research , 93 (4) : 245 – 254 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci , E. and Ryan , R. 1985 . Intrinsic motivation and self‐determination in human behavior , New York : Plenum .
   Google Scholar
• Dimitrov , D. M. 1999 . Gender differences in science achievement: Differential effect of ability, response format, and strands of learning outcomes . School Science and Mathematics , 99 (8) : 445 – 450 .
   Google Scholar
• Eisenhart , M. , Finkel , E. and Marion , S. F. 1996 . Creating the conditions for scientific literacy: A re‐examination . American Educational Research Journal , 33 (2) : 261 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson , R. F. and Ladd , H. F. 1996 . “ How and why money matters: An analysis of Alabama schools ” . In Holding schools accountable: Performance‐based reform in education , Edited by: Ladd , H. F. 265 – 298 . Washington, DC : Brookings Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fetler , M. 1999 . High school staff characteristics and mathematics test results . Education Policy Analysis Archives , 7 (9) Retrieved March 6, 2006, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n9
   Google Scholar
• Fetler , M. 2001 . Student mathematic achievement test scores, dropout rates, and teacher characteristics . Teacher Education Quarterly , 28 (1) : 151 – 168 .
   Google Scholar
• Finn , J. D. and Achilles , C. M. 1999 . Tennessee’s class size study: Findings, implications, misconceptions . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 21 (2) : 97 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goesling , B. 2005 . “ Rich land, poor schools: Inequality of national educational resources and achievement of disadvantaged students ” . In National differences, global similarities: World culture and the future of schooling , Edited by: Baker , D. and LeTendre , G. 71 – 85 . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Goldhaber , D. D. 1999 . School choice: An examination of the empirical evidence on achievement, parental decision making, and equity . Educational Researcher , 28 (9) : 16 – 25 .
   Google Scholar
• Goldhaber , D. D. and Brewer , D. J. 2000 . Does teacher certification matter? High school teacher certification status and student achievement . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 22 (2) : 129 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene , B. A. and DeBacker , T. K. 2004 . Gender and orientations toward the future: Links to motivation . Educational Psychology Review , 16 (2) : 91 – 120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfield , T. A. 1995 . An exploration of gender participation patterns in science competitions . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 32 (7) : 735 – 748 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfield , T. A. 1996 . Gender, ethnicity, science achievement, and attitudes . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 33 (8) : 901 – 933 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald , R. , Hedges , L. V. and Laine , R. D. 1996 . The effect of school resources on student achievement . Review of Educational Research , 66 (3) : 361 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanushek , E. A. 1997 . Assessing the effects of school resources on student performance: An update . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 19 (2) : 141 – 164 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , H. C. , Rowan , B. and Ball , D. 2005 . Effects of teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching on student achievement . American Educational Research Journal , 42 (2) : 371 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honig , M. I. , Kahne , J. and McLaughlin , M. W. 2001 . “ School‐community connections: Strengthening opportunity to learn and opportunity to teach ” . In History of research on teaching , Edited by: Richardson , V. 998 – 1028 . Washington, DC : American Educational Research Association .
   Google Scholar
• House , J. D. 2006 . The effects of classroom instructional strategies on science achievement of elementary‐school students in Japan: Findings from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) . International Journal of Instructional Media , 33 (2) : 217 – 229 .
   Google Scholar
• House , J. D. 2008 . Science beliefs, instructional strategies, and life sciences achievement in Japan: Results from the TIMSS 1999 assessment . International Journal of Instructional Media , 35 (1) : 103 – 113 .
   Google Scholar
• Husen , T. and Postlethwaite , N. , eds. 1994 . The international encyclopedia of education , (2nd ed.) , Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Iverson , B. and Walberg , H. 1982 . Home environment and school learning: A quantitative synthesis . Journal of Experimental Education , 50 (3) : 144 – 151 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jovanovich , J. and King , S. S. 1998 . Boys and girls in the performance‐based science classroom: Who’s doing the performing? . American Educational Research Journal , 35 (3) : 477 – 496 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahle , J. B. 2004 . Will girls be left behind? Gender differences and accountability . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 41 (10) : 961 – 969 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahle , J. B. , Parker , L. H. , Rennie , L. J. and Riley , D. 1993 . Gender differences in science education: Building a model . Educational Psychologist , 28 (4) : 379 – 404 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahlenberg , R. D. 2001 . All together now: Creating middle‐class schools through public school choice , Washington, DC : Brookings Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Khong , L. Y. L. and Ng , P. T. 2005 . School‐parent partnerships in Singapore . Educational Research for Policy and Practice , 4 (1) : 1 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Klem , A. M. and Connell , J. P. 2004 . Relationships matter: Linking teacher support to student engagement and achievement . Journal of School Health , 74 (7) : 262 – 273 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladd , G. W. 2003 . “ Probing the adaptive significance of children’s behavior and relationships in the school context: A child‐by‐environment perspective ” . In Advances in child behavior and development , Edited by: Kail , R. 43 – 104 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Lamb , S. and Fullarton , S. 2002 . Classroom and school factors affecting mathematics achievement: A comparative study of Australia and the United States using TIMSS . Australian Journal of Education , 46 (2) : 154 – 171 .
   Google Scholar
• Lau , S. and Roeser , R. W. 2002 . Cognitive abilities and motivational processes in high school students’ situational engagement and achievement in science . Educational Assessment , 8 : 139 – 162 .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , O. 1999 . Equity implications based on the conceptions of science achievement in major reform documents . Review of Educational Research , 69 (1) : 83 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , O. , Deaktor , R. A. , Hart , J. E. , Cuevas , P. and Enders , C. 2006 . An instructional intervention’s impact on the science and literacy achievement of culturally and linguistically diverse elementary students . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 42 (8) : 857 – 887 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , O. and Luykx , A. 2005 . Dilemmas in scaling up innovations in elementary science instruction with nonmainstream students . American Educational Research Journal , 42 (3) : 411 – 438 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeTendre , G. K. , ed. 1999 . Competitor or ally , New York : Falmer .
   Google Scholar
• LeTendre , G. K. , Hofer , B. K. and Shimizu , H. 2003 . What is tracking? Cultural expectations in the United States, Germany, and Japan . American Educational Research Journal , 40 (1) : 43 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lytton , H. and Pyryt , M. C. 1998 . Predictors of achievement in basic skills: A Canadian effective schools study . Canadian Journal of Education , 23 (3) : 281 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• Ma , X. and Klinger , D. A. 2004 . Hierarchical linear modeling of student and school effects on academic achievement . Canadian Journal of Education , 25 (1) : 41 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Manning , M. L. 1998 . Gender differences in young adolescents’ mathematics and science achievement . Childhood Education , 74 (3) : 168 – 171 .
   Google Scholar
• Marks , H. M. 2000 . Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years . American Educational Research Journal , 37 (1) : 153 – 184 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , M. O. and Mullis , I. V. S. 2004 . “ Overview of TIMSS 2003 ” . In TIMSS 2003 technical report , Edited by: Martin , M. O. , Mullis , I. V. S. and Chortowski , S. J. 3 – 20 . Chestnut Hill, MA : Boston College .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , M. O. , Mullis , I. V. S. , Gonzalez , E. J. and Chrostowski , S. J. 2004 . TIMSS 2003 international science report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the fourth and eighth grades , Chestnut Hill, MA : Boston College .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , D. and Mitchell , R. E. 1999 . The impact of California’s class size reduction initiative on student achievement: Detailed findings from eight school districts , Riverside, CA : California Educational Research Cooperative, University of California, Riverside .
   Google Scholar
• Monk , D. H. 1994 . Subject area preparation of secondary mathematics and science teachers and student achievement . Economics of Education Review , 13 (2) : 125 – 145 .
   Google Scholar
• Morrell , P. D. and Lederman , N. G. 1998 . Students’ attitudes toward school and classroom science: Are they independent? . School Science and Mathematics , 98 (2) : 76 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• Mukhopadhaya , P. 2002 . Education policies as means to tackle income disparity: The Singapore case . International Journal of Social Economics , 29 (12) : 946 – 955 .
   Google Scholar
• Murdock , J. 2008 . Comparison of curricular breadth, depth, and recurrence and physics achievement of TIMSS Population 3 countries . International Journal of Science Education , 30 (9) : 1135 – 1157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrell Jr , P. C. 2001 . The community teacher: A new framework for effective urban teaching , New York : Teachers College Press .
   Google Scholar
• NAS (National Academy of Sciences) . 2006 . Rising above the gathering storm: Energizing and employing America for a brighter economic future , Washington, DC : National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering/Institute of Medicine .
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Education Statistics . 2009 . TIMSS 2007 Results Retrieved April 1, 2009 from http://nces.ed.gov/timss/results07_science95.asp
   Google Scholar
• No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Public Law 107‐110 (HR1), 107th Congress . 2002 .
   Google Scholar
• NRC (National Research Council) . 1996 . National science education standards , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• NSB (National Science Board) . 2007 . A national action plan for addressing the critical needs of the US science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education system Retrieved May 3, 2008, from http://www.nsf.gov/nsb/stem/index.jsp
   Google Scholar
• Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) . 2000 . Additional instruction time and learning time of 15‐year‐olds , Paris : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Paris , S. G. , Yambor , K. M. and Packard , B. W. L. 1998 . Hands‐on biology: A museum‐school‐university partnership for enhancing students’ interest and learning in science . Elementary School Journal , 98 (3) : 267 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pong , S. and Pallas , A. 2001 . Class size and eighth‐grade math achievement in the United States and abroad . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 23 (3) : 251 – 273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush , S. W. and Bryk , A. S. 2002 . Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods , (2nd ed.) , Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Roscigno , V. J. and Ainsworth‐Darnell , J. W. 1999 . Race and cultural/educational resources: Inequality, micro‐political processes, and achievement returns . Sociology of Education , 72 (3) : 158 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowan , B. , Correnti , R. and Miller , R. J. 2002 . What large‐scale survey research tells us about teacher effects on student achievement: Insights from the Prospects Study of Elementary Schools . Teachers College Record , 104 (8) : 1525 – 1567 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , N. U. 1997 . “ Lessons from Japanese cram schools ” . In The challenge of Eastern‐Asian education: Lessons for America , Edited by: Cummings , W. K. and Altbach , P. 153 – 170 . Albany, NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sammons , P. , West , A. and Hind , A. 1997 . Accounting for variations in pupil attainment at the end of key stage 1 . British Educational Research Journal , 23 (4) : 489 – 511 .
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt , W. H. and McKnight , C. C. 1998 . What can we really learn from TIMSS? . Science , 282 (5395) : 1830 – 1831 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , W. H. , McKnight , C. C. and Raizen , S. A. 1997 . A splintered vision: An investigation of US science and mathematics education , Boston : Kluwer Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , P. , Molnar , A. and Zahorik , J. 2003 . Class size reduction in Wisconsin: A fresh look at the data . Educational Leadership , 61 (1) : 72 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1997 . Girls’ science education: Choice, solidarity and culture . International Journal of Science Education , 19 (4) : 407 – 417 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson , H. W. and Stigler , J. W. 1992 . The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education , New York : Summit Books .
   Google Scholar
• Stohr‐Hunt , P. M. 1996 . An analysis of frequency of hands‐on experience and science achievement . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 33 (1) : 101 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson‐Gehrke , R. 2005 . Poor schools, poor students, successful teachers . Kappa Delta Pi , 42 (1) : 14 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Tan , J. 1998 . The marketization of education in Singapore: Policies and implications . International Review of Education , 44 (1) : 47 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• The Scottish Government . 2008 . Schools: Curriculum and assessment Retrieved October 26, 2008, from http://www.scotland.gov.uk/topics/education/schools/curriculum
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) . 2006 . Handbook for decentralized education planning , Bangkok : UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau of Education .
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Education . 2000 . Before it’s too late: A report to the nation from the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century Retrieved February 11, 2006, from http://www.ed.gov/inits/Math/glenn/report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Education . 2004 . No child left behind: A toolkit for teachers Retrieved June 4, 2008, from http://www.ed.gov/teachers/nclbguide/nclb-teachers-toolkit.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Walberg , H. 1986 . “ Synthesis of research on teaching ” . In Handbook of research on teaching , Edited by: Wittrock , M. C. 214 – 229 . Washington, DC : American Educational Research Association .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , A. H. , Coleman , A. B. , Coley , R. J. and Phelps , R. P. 2003 . Preparing teachers around the world , Princeton, NJ : Educational Testing Service .
   Google Scholar
• Wenglinsky , H. 2002 . How schools matter: The link between teacher classroom practices and student academic performance . Education Policy Analysis Archives , 10 (12) Retrieved March 10, 2007, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n12/
   Google Scholar
• Woessman , L. and West , M. R. 2002 . Class‐size effects in school systems around the world: Evidence from between‐grade variation in TIMSS , Bonn : Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) .
   Google Scholar
• Xin , T. , Xu , Z. and Tatsuoka , K. 2004 . Linkage between teacher quality, student achievement, and cognitive skills: A rule‐space model . Studies in Educational Evaluation , 30 (3) : 205 – 223 .
   Google Scholar
• Xu , Z. and Gulosino , C. A. 2006 . How does teacher quality matter? The effect of teacher–parent partnership on early childhood performance in public and private schools . Education Economics , 14 (3) : 345 – 367 .
   Google Scholar