938
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Editorial

Prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis and associated fractures: Clinical evaluation of the choice between estrogen and bisphosphonates

Pages 601-609 | Published online: 07 Jul 2009

References

  • Riggs B L, Melton L J, 3rd. Involutional osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1676–1686
  • Ott S M. Bone density in adolescents. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1646–1647
  • Wark J D. Osteoporosis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention and management. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 7: 151–181
  • Hui S L, Wiske P S, Norton J A, Johnston C C, Jr. A prospective study of change in bone mass with age in postmenopausal women. J Chronic Dis 1982; 35: 715–725
  • Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 1996; 312: 1254–1259
  • Cooper C. Femoral neck bone density and fracture risk. Osteoporos Int 1996; 6(Suppl 3)24–26
  • Kim N, Kadono Y, Takami M, Lee J, Lee S H, Okada F, Kim J H, Kobayashi T, Odgren P R, Nakano H, et al. Osteoclast differentiation independent of the TRANCE–RANK–TRAF6 axis. J Exp Med 2005; 202: 589–595
  • Lambert C, Oury C, Dejardin E, Chariot A, Piette J, Malaise M, Merville M P, Franchimont N. Further insights in the mechanisms of interleukin-1β stimulation of osteoprotegerin in osteoblast-like cells. J Bone Miner Res 2007; 22: 1350–1361
  • Karst M, Gorny G, Galvin R J, Oursler M J. Roles of stromal cell RANKL, OPG, and M-CSF expression in biphasic TGF-β regulation of osteoclast differentiation. J Cell Physiol 2004; 200: 99–106
  • Yamamoto T, Saatcioglu F, Matsuda T. Cross-talk between bone morphogenic proteins and estrogen receptor signaling. Endocrinology 2002; 143: 2635–2642
  • Hawse J R, Subramaniam M, Ingle J N, Oursler M J, Rajamannan N M, Spelsberg T C. Estrogen–TGFβ cross-talk in bone and other cell types: role of TIEG, Runx2, and other transcription factors. J Cell Biochem 2008; 103: 383–392
  • Yakar S, Rosen C J, Beamer W G, Ackert-Bicknell C L, Wu Y, Liu J L, Ooi G T, Setser J, Frystyk J, Boisclair Y R, et al. Circulating levels of IGF-1 directly regulate bone growth and density. J Clin Invest 2002; 110: 771–781
  • Weitzmann M N, Pacifici R. The role of T lymphocytes in bone metabolism. Immunol Rev 2005; 208: 154–168
  • Fuller K, Murphy C, Kirstein B, Fox S W, Chambers T J. TNFα potently activates osteoclasts, through a direct action independent of and strongly synergistic with RANKL. Endocrinology 2002; 143: 1108–1118
  • Nanes M S. Tumor necrosis factor-α: molecular and cellular mechanisms in skeletal pathology. Gene 2003; 321: 1–15
  • Lam J, Takeshita S, Barker J E, Kanagawa O, Ross F P, Teitelbaum S L. TNF-α induces osteoclastogenesis by direct stimulation of macrophages exposed to permissive levels of RANK ligand. J Clin Invest 2000; 106: 1481–1488
  • Wei S, Kitaura H, Zhou P, Ross F P, Teitelbaum S L. IL-1 mediates TNF-induced osteoclastogenesis. J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 282–290
  • Abe E, Marians R C, Yu W, Wu X B, Ando T, Li Y, Iqbal J, Eldeiry L, Rajendren G, Blair H C, et al. TSH is a negative regulator of skeletal remodeling. Cell 2003; 115: 151–162
  • Sun L, Peng Y, Sharrow A C, Iqbal J, Zhang Z, Papachristou D J, Zaidi S, Zhu L L, Yaroslavskiy B B, Zhou H, et al. FSH directly regulates bone mass. Cell 2006; 125: 247–260
  • Hase H, Ando T, Eldeiry L, Brebene A, Peng Y, Liu L, Amano H, Davies T F, Sun L, Zaidi M, et al. TNFα mediates the skeletal effects of thyroid-stimulating hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103: 12849–12854
  • Iqbal J, Sun L, Kumar T R, Blair H C, Zaidi M. Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates TNF production from immune cells to enhance osteoblast and osteoclast formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103: 14925–14930
  • Kaneki H, Guo R, Chen D, Yao Z, Schwarz E M, Zhang Y E, Boyce B F, Xing L. Tumor necrosis factor promotes Runx2 degradation through up-regulation of Smurf1 and Smurf2 in osteoblasts. J Biol Chem 2006; 281: 4326–4333
  • Kousteni S, Bellido T, Plotkin L I, O'Brien C A, Bodenner D L, Han L, Han K, DiGregorio G B, Katzenellenbogen J A, Katzenellenbogen B S, et al. Nongenotropic, sex-nonspecific signaling through the estrogen or androgen receptors: dissociation from transcriptional activity. Cell 2001; 104: 719–730
  • Onoe Y, Miyaura C, Ohta H, Nozawa S, Suda T. Expression of estrogen receptor β in rat bone. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 4509–4512
  • Arts J, Kuiper G G, Janssen J M, Gustafsson J A, Lowik C W, Pols H A, van Leeuwen J P. Differential expression of estrogen receptors α and β mRNA during differentiation of human osteoblast SV-HFO cells. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 5067–5070
  • Smith E P, Boyd J, Frank G R, Takahashi H, Cohen R M, Specker B, Williams T C, Lubahn D B, Korach K S. Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1056–1061
  • Kousteni S, Han L, Chen J R, Almeida M, Plotkin L I, Bellido T, Manolagas S C. Kinase-mediated regulation of common transcription factors accounts for the bone-protective effects of sex steroids. J Clin Invest 2003; 111: 1651–1664
  • Hofbauer L C, Lacey D L, Dunstan C R, Spelsberg T C, Riggs B L, Khosla S. Interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α, but not interleukin-6, stimulate osteoprotegerin ligand gene expression in human osteoblastic cells. Bone 1999; 25: 255–259
  • Cenci S, Weitzmann M N, Roggia C, Namba N, Novack D, Woodring J, Pacifici R. Estrogen deficiency induces bone loss by enhancing T-cell production of TNF-α. J Clin Invest 2000; 106: 1229–1237
  • Roggia C, Gao Y, Cenci S, Weitzmann M N, Toraldo G, Isaia G, Pacifici R. Up-regulation of TNF-producing T cells in the bone marrow: a key mechanism by which estrogen deficiency induces bone loss in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98: 13960–13965
  • Stein B, Yang M X. Repression of the interleukin-6 promoter by estrogen receptor is mediated by NF-κB and C/EBP β. Mol Cell Biol 1995; 15: 4971–4979
  • Galien R, Garcia T. Estrogen receptor impairs interleukin-6 expression by preventing protein binding on the NF-κB site. Nucleic Acids Res 1997; 25: 2424–2429
  • Hughes D E, Dai A, Tiffee J C, Li H H, Mundy G R, Boyce B F. Estrogen promotes apoptosis of murine osteoclasts mediated by TGF-β. Nat Med 1996; 2: 1132–1136
  • Reid I R, Eastell R, Fogelman I, Adachi J D, Rosen A, Netelenbos C, Watts N B, Seeman E, Ciaccia A V, Draper M W. A comparison of the effects of raloxifene and conjugated equine estrogen on bone and lipids in healthy postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 871–879
  • Bord S, Ireland D C, Beavan S R, Compston J E. The effects of estrogen on osteoprotegerin, RANKL, and estrogen receptor expression in human osteoblasts. Bone 2003; 32: 136–141
  • Liao E Y, Luo X H, Su X. Comparison of the effects of 17β-E2 and progesterone on the expression of osteoprotegerin in normal human osteoblast-like cells. J Endocrinol Invest 2002; 25: 785–790
  • Chen C, Noland K A, Kalu D N. Modulation of intestinal vitamin D receptor by ovariectomy, estrogen and growth hormone. Mech Ageing Dev 1997; 99: 109–122
  • Tiegs R D, Body J J, Wahner H W, Barta J, Riggs B L, Heath H, 3rd. Calcitonin secretion in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 1097–1100
  • Fleisch H. Bisphosphonates. Pharmacology and use in the treatment of tumour-induced hypercalcaemic and metastatic bone disease. Drugs 1991; 42: 919–944
  • Schenk R, Eggli P, Fleisch H, Rosini S. Quantitative morphometric evaluation of the inhibitory activity of new aminobisphosphonates on bone resorption in the rat. Calcif Tissue Int 1986; 38: 342–349
  • Lehenkari P P, Kellinsalmi M, Napankangas J P, Ylitalo K V, Monkkonen J, Rogers M J, Azhayev A, Vaananen H K, Hassinen I E. Further insight into mechanism of action of clodronate: inhibition of mitochondrial ADP/ATP translocase by a nonhydrolyzable, adenine-containing metabolite. Mol Pharmacol 2002; 61: 1255–1262
  • Goldstein J L, Brown M S. Regulation of the mevalonate pathway. Nature 1990; 343: 425–430
  • Roskoski R, Jr. Protein prenylation: a pivotal posttranslational process. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003; 303: 1–7
  • Sato M, Grasser W. Effects of bisphosphonates on isolated rat osteoclasts as examined by reflected light microscopy. J Bone Miner Res 1990; 5: 31–40
  • Razzouk S, Lieberherr M, Cournot G. Rac-GTPase, osteoclast cytoskeleton and bone resorption. Eur J Cell Biol 1999; 78: 249–255
  • Christensen M S, Hagen C, Christiansen C, Transbol I. Dose–response evaluation of cyclic estrogen/gestagen in postmenopausal women: placebo-controlled trial of its gynecologic and metabolic actions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 144: 873–879
  • Christiansen C, Christensen M S, Larsen N E, Transbol I B. Pathophysiological mechanisms of estrogen effect on bone metabolism. Dose–response relationships in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982; 55: 1124–1130
  • Munk-Jensen N, Pors Nielsen S, Obel E B, Bonne Eriksen P. Reversal of postmenopausal vertebral bone loss by oestrogen and progestogen: a double blind placebo controlled study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1988; 296: 1150–1152
  • Christiansen C, Riis B J. Five years with continuous combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy. Effects on calcium metabolism, lipoproteins, and bleeding pattern. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 97: 1087–1092
  • Resch H, Pietschmann P, Krexner E, Woloszczuk W, Willvonseder R. Effects of one-year hormone replacement therapy on peripheral bone mineral content in patients with osteoporotic spine fractures. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1990; 123: 14–18
  • Rossouw J E, Anderson G L, Prentice R L, LaCroix A Z, Kooperberg C, Stefanick M L, Jackson R D, Beresford S A, Howard B V, Johnson K C, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288: 321–333
  • Anderson G L, Limacher M, Assaf A R, Bassford T, Beresford S A, Black H, Bonds D, Brunner R, Brzyski R, Caan B, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 291: 1701–1712
  • Vedi S, Purdie D W, Ballard P, Bord S, Cooper A C, Compston J E. Bone remodeling and structure in postmenopausal women treated with long-term, high-dose estrogen therapy. Osteoporos Int 1999; 10: 52–58
  • Hosking D, Chilvers C E, Christiansen C, Ravn P, Wasnich R, Ross P, McClung M, Balske A, Thompson D, Daley M, et al. Prevention of bone loss with alendronate in postmenopausal women under 60 years of age. Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 485–492
  • Harris S T, Watts N B, Genant H K, McKeever C D, Hangartner T, Keller M, Chesnut C H, 3rd, Brown J, Eriksen E F, Hoseyni M S, et al. Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Vertebral Efficacy With Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. JAMA 1999; 282: 1344–1352
  • Hosking D, Adami S, Felsenberg D, Andia J C, Valimaki M, Benhamou L, Reginster J Y, Yacik C, Rybak-Feglin A, Petruschke R A, et al. Comparison of change in bone resorption and bone mineral density with once-weekly alendronate and daily risedronate: a randomised, placebo-controlled study. Curr Med Res Opin 2003; 19: 383–394
  • Hooper M J, Ebeling P R, Roberts A P, Graham J J, Nicholson G C, D'Emden M, Ernst T F, Wenderoth D. Risedronate prevents bone loss in early postmenopausal women: a prospective randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Climacteric 2005; 8: 251–262
  • Wasnich R D, Bagger Y Z, Hosking D J, McClung M R, Wu M, Mantz A M, Yates J J, Ross P D, Alexandersen P, Ravn P, et al. Changes in bone density and turnover after alendronate or estrogen withdrawal. Menopause 2004; 11: 622–630
  • Ensrud K E, Barrett-Connor E L, Schwartz A, Santora A C, Bauer D C, Suryawanshi S, Feldstein A, Haskell W L, Hochberg M C, Torner J C, et al. Randomized trial of effect of alendronate continuation versus discontinuation in women with low BMD: results from the Fracture Intervention Trial long-term extension. J Bone Miner Res 2004; 19: 1259–1269
  • Fleisch H. Development of bisphosphonates. Breast Cancer Res 2002; 4: 30–34
  • Vaisman D N, McCarthy A D, Cortizo A M. Bone-specific alkaline phosphatase activity is inhibited by bisphosphonates: role of divalent cations. Biol Trace Elem Res 2005; 104: 131–140
  • Ravn P, Bidstrup M, Wasnich R D, Davis J W, McClung M R, Balske A, Coupland C, Sahota O, Kaur A, Daley M, et al. Alendronate and estrogen–progestin in the long-term prevention of bone loss: four-year results from the early postmenopausal intervention cohort study. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131: 935–942
  • Ravn P, Clemmesen B, Christiansen C. Biochemical markers can predict the response in bone mass during alendronate treatment in early postmenopausal women. Alendronate Osteoporosis Prevention Study Group. Bone 1999; 24: 237–244
  • Ravn P, Hosking D, Thompson D, Cizza G, Wasnich R D, McClung M, Yates A J, Bjarnason N H, Christiansen C. Monitoring of alendronate treatment and prediction of effect on bone mass by biochemical markers in the early postmenopausal intervention cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 2363–2368
  • Odvina C V, Zerwekh J E, Rao D S, Maalouf N, Gottschalk F A, Pak C Y. Severely suppressed bone turnover: a potential complication of alendronate therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 1294–1301
  • Finkelstein J S, Hayes A, Hunzelman J L, Wyland J J, Lee H, Neer R M. The effects of parathyroid hormone, alendronate, or both in men with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1216–1226
  • Black D M, Greenspan S L, Ensrud K E, Palermo L, McGowan J A, Lang T F, Garnero P, Bouxsein M L, Bilezikian J P, Rosen C J. The effects of parathyroid hormone and alendronate alone or in combination in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1207–1215
  • Fleurence R, Torgerson D J, Reid D M. Cost-effectiveness of hormone replacement therapy for fracture prevention in young postmenopausal women: an economic analysis based on a prospective cohort study. Osteoporos Int 2002; 13: 637–643
  • Lindsay R, Cosman F, Lobo R A, Walsh B W, Harris S T, Reagan J E, Liss C L, Melton M E, Byrnes C A. Addition of alendronate to ongoing hormone replacement therapy in the treatment of osteoporosis: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 3076–3081
  • Harris S T, Eriksen E F, Davidson M, Ettinger M P, Moffett A H, Jr, Baylink D J, Crusan C E, Chines A A. Effect of combined risedronate and hormone replacement therapies on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 1890–1897
  • Evio S, Tiitinen A, Laitinen K, Ylikorkala O, Valimaki M J. Effects of alendronate and hormone replacement therapy, alone and in combination, on bone mass and markers of bone turnover in elderly women with osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 626–631
  • Scimeca J C, Franchi A, Trojani C, Parrinello H, Grosgeorge J, Robert C, Jaillon O, Poirier C, Gaudray P, Carle G F. The gene encoding the mouse homologue of the human osteoclast-specific 116-kDa V-ATPase subunit bears a deletion in osteosclerotic (oc/oc) mutants. Bone 2000; 26: 207–213
  • Quarello P, Forni M, Barberis L, Defilippi C, Campagnoli M F, Silvestro L, Frattini A, Chalhoub N, Vacher J, Ramenghi U. Severe malignant osteopetrosis caused by a GL gene mutation. J Bone Miner Res 2004; 19: 1194–1199
  • Kong Y Y, Yoshida H, Sarosi I, Tan H L, Timms E, Capparelli C, Morony S, Oliveira-dos-Santos A J, Van G, Itie A, et al. OPGL is a key regulator of osteoclastogenesis, lymphocyte development and lymph-node organogenesis. Nature 1999; 397: 315–323
  • Li J, Sarosi I, Yan X Q, Morony S, Capparelli C, Tan H L, McCabe S, Elliott R, Scully S, Van G, et al. RANK is the intrinsic hematopoietic cell surface receptor that controls osteoclastogenesis and regulation of bone mass and calcium metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97: 1566–1571
  • Kornak U, Kasper D, Bosl M R, Kaiser E, Schweizer M, Schulz A, Friedrich W, Delling G, Jentsch T J. Loss of the ClC-7 chloride channel leads to osteopetrosis in mice and man. Cell 2001; 104: 205–215
  • Bathi R J, Masur V N. Pyknodysostosis – a report of two cases with a brief review of the literature. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2000; 29: 439–442
  • Suda T, Takahashi N, Udagawa N, Jimi E, Gillespie M T, Martin T J. Modulation of osteoclast differentiation and function by the new members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor and ligand families. Endocr Rev 1999; 20: 345–357
  • Mashiba T, Hirano T, Turner C H, Forwood M R, Johnston C C, Burr D B. Suppressed bone turnover by bisphosphonates increases microdamage accumulation and reduces some biomechanical properties in dog rib. J Bone Miner Res 2000; 15: 613–620
  • Mashiba T, Turner C H, Hirano T, Forwood M R, Johnston C C, Burr D B. Effects of suppressed bone turnover by bisphosphonates on microdamage accumulation and biomechanical properties in clinically relevant skeletal sites in beagles. Bone 2001; 28: 524–531
  • Burr D B, Miller L, Grynpas M, Li J, Boyde A, Mashiba T, Hirano T, Johnston C C. Tissue mineralization is increased following 1-year treatment with high doses of bisphosphonates in dogs. Bone 2003; 33: 960–969
  • Mashiba T, Mori S, Burr D B, Komatsubara S, Cao Y, Manabe T, Norimatsu H. The effects of suppressed bone remodeling by bisphosphonates on microdamage accumulation and degree of mineralization in the cortical bone of dog rib. J Bone Miner Metab 2005; 23(Suppl)36–42
  • Li J, Sato M, Jerome C, Turner C H, Fan Z, Burr D B. Microdamage accumulation in the monkey vertebra does not occur when bone turnover is suppressed by 50% or less with estrogen or raloxifene. J Bone Miner Metab 2005; 23(Suppl)48–54
  • Karsdal M A, Qvist P, Christiansen C, Tanko L B. Optimising antiresorptive therapies in postmenopausal women: why do we need to give due consideration to the degree of suppression. Drugs 2006; 66: 1909–1918
  • Wood J, Bonjean K, Ruetz S, Bellahcene A, Devy L, Foidart J M, Castronovo V, Green J R. Novel antiangiogenic effects of the bisphosphonate compound zoledronic acid. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 302: 1055–1061
  • Hellstein J W, Marek C L. Bisphosphonate osteochemonecrosis (bis-phossy jaw): is this phossy jaw of the 21st century. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2005; 63: 682–689
  • Migliorati C A, Schubert M M, Peterson D E, Seneda L M. Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of mandibular and maxillary bone: an emerging oral complication of supportive cancer therapy. Cancer 2005; 104: 83–93
  • Purcell P M, Boyd I W. Bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaw. Med J Aust 2005; 182: 417–418
  • Ficarra G, Beninati F, Rubino I, Vannucchi A, Longo G, Tonelli P, Pini Prato G. Osteonecrosis of the jaws in periodontal patients with a history of bisphosphonates treatment. J Clin Periodontol 2005; 32: 1123–1128
  • Vannucchi A M, Ficarra G, Antonioli E, Bosi A. Osteonecrosis of the jaw associated with zoledronate therapy in a patient with multiple myeloma. Br J Haematol 2005; 128: 738
  • Robinson N A, Yeo J F. Bisphosphonates – a word of caution. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2004; 33(4 Suppl)48–49
  • Ruggiero S L, Mehrotra B, Rosenberg T J, Engroff S L. Osteonecrosis of the jaws associated with the use of bisphosphonates: a review of 63 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004; 62: 527–534
  • Thomsen J S, Ebbesen E N, Mosekilde L. Predicting human vertebral bone strength by vertebral static histomorphometry. Bone 2002; 30: 502–508
  • Khastgir G, Studd J, Holland N, Alaghband-Zadeh J, Fox S, Chow J. Anabolic effect of estrogen replacement on bone in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: histomorphometric evidence in a longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 289–295
  • Stepan J J, Burr D B, Pavo I, Sipos A, Michalska D, Li J, Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Petto H, Westmore M, Michalsky D, et al. Low bone mineral density is associated with bone microdamage accumulation in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Bone 2007; 41: 378–385
  • Roughead E E, McGeechan K, Sayer G P. Bisphosphonate use and subsequent prescription of acid suppressants. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004; 57: 813–816
  • Barrera B A, Wilton L, Harris S, Shakir S A. Prescription-event monitoring study on 13,164 patients prescribed risedronate in primary care in England. Osteoporos Int 2005; 16: 1989–1998
  • Yang Y X, Lewis J D, Epstein S, Metz D C. Long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy and risk of hip fracture. JAMA 2006; 296: 2947–2953
  • Rossouw J E, Prentice R L, Manson J E, Wu L, Barad D, Barnabei V M, Ko M, LaCroix A Z, Margolis K L, Stefanick M L. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA 2007; 297: 1465–1477
  • Hsia J, Langer R D, Manson J E, Kuller L, Johnson K C, Hendrix S L, Pettinger M, Heckbert S R, Greep N, Crawford S, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease: the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 357–365
  • Stefanick M L, Anderson G L, Margolis K L, Hendrix S L, Rodabough R J, Paskett E D, Lane D S, Hubbell F A, Assaf A R, Sarto G E, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogens on breast cancer and mammography screening in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy. JAMA 2006; 295: 1647–1657
  • Fournier A, Berrino F, Clavel-Chapelon F. Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies: results from the E3N cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2008; 107: 103–111
  • Smith D C, Prentice R, Thompson D J, Herrmann W L. Association of exogenous estrogen and endometrial carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1975; 293: 1164–1167
  • Woodruff J D, Pickar J H. Incidence of endometrial hyperplasia in postmenopausal women taking conjugated estrogens (Premarin) with medroxyprogesterone acetate or conjugated estrogens alone. The Menopause Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 170: 1213–1223
  • Sturdee D W, Wade-Evans T, Paterson M E, Thom M, Studd J W. Relations between bleeding pattern, endometrial histology, and oestrogen treatment in menopausal women. Br Med J 1978; 1: 1575–1577
  • Padwick M L, Pryse-Davies J, Whitehead M I. A simple method for determining the optimal dosage of progestin in postmenopausal women receiving estrogens. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 930–934
  • Steiner A Z, Xiang M, Mack W J, Shoupe D, Felix J C, Lobo R A, Hodis H N. Unopposed estradiol therapy in postmenopausal women: results from two randomized trials. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109: 581–587
  • Weiderpass E, Adami H O, Baron J A, Magnusson C, Bergstrom R, Lindgren A, Correia N, Persson I. Risk of endometrial cancer following estrogen replacement with and without progestins. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91: 1131–1137
  • Marcil M, Brooks-Wilson A, Clee S M, Roomp K, Zhang L H, Yu L, Collins J A, van Dam M, Molhuizen H O, Loubster O, et al. Mutations in the ABC1 gene in familial HDL deficiency with defective cholesterol efflux. Lancet 1999; 354: 1341–1346
  • Rust S, Rosier M, Funke H, Real J, Amoura Z, Piette J C, Deleuze J F, Brewer H B, Duverger N, Denefle P, et al. Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1. Nat Genet 1999; 22: 352–355
  • Miyagawa K, Rosch J, Stanczyk F, Hermsmeyer K. Medroxyprogesterone interferes with ovarian steroid protection against coronary vasospasm. Nat Med 1997; 3: 324–327
  • Thomas D B, Ray R M. Oral contraceptives and invasive adenocarcinomas and adenosquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix. The World Health Organization Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144: 281–289
  • Hellberg D, Stendahl U. The biological role of smoking, oral contraceptive use and endogenous sexual steroid hormones in invasive squamous epithelial cervical cancer. Anticancer Res 2005; 25: 3041–3046
  • Hellberg D, Lindstrom A K, Stendahl U. Correlation between serum estradiol/progesterone ratio and survival length in invasive squamous cell cervical cancer. Anticancer Res 2005; 25: 611–616
  • Pater A, Bayatpour M, Pater M M. Oncogenic transformation by human papillomavirus type 16 deoxyribonucleic acid in the presence of progesterone or progestins from oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 162: 1099–1103
  • Brinton L A. Oral contraceptives and cervical neoplasia. Contraception 1991; 43: 581–595
  • Martin H L, Jr., Nyange P M, Richardson B A, Lavreys L, Mandaliya K, Jackson D J, Ndinya-Achola J O, Kreiss J. Hormonal contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, and risk of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 1053–1059
  • Clark J H. A critique of Women's Health Initiative studies (2002–2006). Nucl Recept Signal 2006; 4: e023

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.