“But I’m oppressed too”: white male college students framing racial emotions as facts and recreating racism

References

• Aguirre, A., Jr., & Messineo, M. (1997). Racially motivated incidents in higher education: What do they say about the campus climate for minority students? Equity & Excellence in Education, 30, 26–30.10.1080/1066568970300203
   Google Scholar
• Apple, M. W. (1998). Foreword. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America (pp. ix–xiii). New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin.
   Google Scholar
• Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53–58.10.1111/psci.2006.17.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake, J. (2011, March 4). Are whites racially oppressed? Retrieved March 8, 2011, from http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/12/21/white.persecution/?hpt=T2
   Google Scholar
• Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, M. K., Carnoy, M., Currie, E., Duster, T., Oppenhiemer, D. B., Shultz, M. M., & Wellman, D. (2003). White-washing race. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cabrera, N. L. (2011). Using a sequential exploratory mixed-method design to examine racial hyperprivilege in higher education. In K. A. Griffin & S. D. Museus (Eds.), Using mixed-methods approaches to study intersectionality in higher education (pp. 77–91). New directions for institutional research, no. 151. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Cabrera, N. L. (2012). Working through whiteness: White male college students challenging racism. The Review of Higher Education, 35, 375–401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll, H. (2011). Affirmative reaction: New formations of white masculinity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.10.1215/9780822393870
   Google Scholar
• Chesler, M. A., Peet, M., & Sevig, T. (2003). Blinded by the whiteness: The development of white college students’ racial awareness. In A. W. Doane & E. Bonilla-Silva (Eds.), White out: The continuing significance of racism (pp. 215–230). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39, 124–130.10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feagin, J. R. (2010). The white racial frame: Centuries of racial framing and counter-framing. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Former Majority Association for Equality. (2011). Mission statement. Retrieved March 8, 2011, from http://www.fmafe.org/Mission.html
   Google Scholar
• Glaser, B. G. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems, 12, 436–445.10.2307/798843
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith, Eds. & Trans.). New York, NY: International Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotional regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362.10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurin, P., Dey, E. L., Hurtado, S., & Gurin, G. (2002). Diversity and higher education: Theory and impact on educational outcomes. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 330–366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, S. R. & Hurtado, S. (2007). Nine themes in campus racial climates and implications for institutional transformation. In S. R. Harper & L. D. Patton (Eds.), Responding to the realities of race on campus. New Directions for Student Services (No. 120, pp. 7–24). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Jayakumar, U. M. (2008). Can higher education meet the needs of an increasingly diverse and global society? Campus diversity and cross-cultural workforce competencies. Harvard Educational Review, 78, 615–651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kring, A. M., & Gordon, A. H. (1998). Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 686–703.10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonardo, Z. (2005). Through the multicultural glass: Althusser, ideology and race relations in post-civil rights America. Policy Futures in Education, 3, 400–412.10.2304/pfie
   Google Scholar
• Leonardo, Z., & Porter, R. K. (2010). Pedagogy of fear: Toward a Fanonian theory of ‘safety’ in race dialogue. Race Ethnicity and Education, 13, 139–157.10.1080/13613324.2010.482898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowery, B. S., Knowles, E. D., & Unzueta, M. M. (2007). Framing inequality safely: Whites’ motivated perceptions of racial privilege. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1237–1250.10.1177/0146167207303016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowery, B. S., Unzueta, M. M., & Knowles, E. D. (2006). Concern for the in-group and opposition to affirmative action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 961–974.10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, T. L., & Doka, K. J. (2000). Men don’t cry – women do: Transcending gender stereotypes of grief. Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazel.
   Google Scholar
• Milem, J. F., Chang, M. J., & Antonio, A. (2005). Making diversity work on campus: A research-based perspective. Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges & Universities.
   Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Mills, C. W. (1997). The racial contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Museus, S. D., Nichols, A. H., & Lambert, A. D. (2008). Racial differences in the effects of campus racial climate on degree completion: A structural equation model. The Review of Higher Education, 32, 107–134.10.1353/rhe.0.0030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (2011). Whites see racism as a zero-sum game that they are now losing. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 6, 215–218.10.1177/1745691611406922
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ortiz, A. M., & Rhoads, R. A. (2000). Deconstructing Whiteness as part of a multicultural educational framework: From theory to practice. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 81–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez Huber, L. (2009). Challenging racist nativist framing: Acknowledging the cultural wealth of undocumented Chicana college students to reframe the immigration debate. Harvard Educational Review, 79, 704–729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, R. D., & Hamrick, F. A. (2009). White, male, and “minority”: Racial consciousness among white male undergraduates attending a historically black university. The Journal of Higher Education, 80, 34–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65–85.10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picca, L., & Feagin, J. (2007). Two-faced racism: Whites in the backstage and frontstage. Abingdon, UK: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Rankin, S. R., & Reason, R. D. (2005). Differing perceptions: How students of color and white students perceive campus climate for underrepresented groups. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 43–61.10.1353/csd.2005.0008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reason, R. D., & Evans, N. J. (2007). The complicated realities of whiteness: From color blind to racially cognizant. New Directions for Student Services, 120, 67–75.10.1002/(ISSN)1536-0695
   Google Scholar
• Reason, R. D., Millar, E. A. R., & Scales, T. C. (2005). Toward a model of racial justice ally development. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 530–546.10.1353/csd.2005.0054
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnick, C. (2002). Keeping the ivory tower white: Discourse of racial domination. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 15, 71–90.
   Google Scholar
• Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139175043
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, S. (2006). Revealing whiteness: The unconscious habits of racial privilege. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Trepagnier, B. (2006). Silent racism: How well-meaning white people perpetuate the racial divide. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
   Google Scholar
• Unzueta, M. M., Gutiérrez, A. S., & Ghavami, N. (2010). How believing in affirmative action quotas affects white women’s self-image. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46, 120–126.
   Google Scholar
• Unzueta, M. M., & Lowery, B. S. (2008). Defining racism safely: The role of self-image maintenance on white Americans’ conceptions of racism. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 44, 1491–1497.
   Google Scholar
• Unzueta, M. M., Lowery, B. S., & Knowles, E. B. (2008). How believing in affirmative action quotas protects white men’s self-esteem. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(1), 1–13.10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, C. (2006). Nelson Mandela: Great exemplar of the grand democratic tradition. In X. Mangcu (Ed.), The meaning of Mandela: A literary and intellectual celebration (pp. 13–23). Cape Town: HSRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yosso, T. J., Smith, W. A., Ceja, M., & Solórzano, D. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Educational Review, 79, 659–690.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuñiga, X., Nagda, B. A., & Sevig, T. D. (2002). Intergroup dialogues: An educational model for cultivating engagement across difference. Equity & Excellence in Education, 35, 7–17.
   Google Scholar