The role of primary processing in the supply risks of critical metals

References

• Achzet, B. and C. Helbig (2013) How To Evaluate Raw Material Supply Risks—An Overview. Resources Policy, 38, 435–447. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.06.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietzenbacher, E., B. Los, R. Stehrer, M. Timmer and G. de Vries (2013) The Construction of World Input–Output Tables in the Wiod Project. Economic Systems Research, 25, 71–98. doi: 10.1080/09535314.2012.761180
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdmann, L. and T.E. Graedel (2011) Criticality of Non-Fuel Minerals: A Review of Major Approaches and Analyses. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 7620–7630. doi: 10.1021/es200563g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Commission (2010) Critical Raw Materials for the EU. The Ad-hoc Working Group on Defining Critical Raw Materials.
   Google Scholar
• Fraser Institute (2016) Economic Freedom of the World Reports, http://www.freetheworld.com/reports.html.
   Google Scholar
• Gemechu, E.D., C. Helbig, G. Sonnemann, A. Thorenz and A. Tuma (2016) Import-based Indicator for the Geopolitical Supply Risk of Raw Materials in Life Cycle Sustainability Assessments. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 20, 154–165. doi: 10.1111/jiec.12279
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gemechu, E.D., G. Sonnemann and S.B. Young (2017) Geopolitical-Related Supply Risk Assessment as a Complement to Environmental Impact Assessment: The Case of Electric Vehicles. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 22, 31–39. doi: 10.1007/s11367-015-0917-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gloser, S., L.T. Espinoza, C. Gandenberger and M. Faulstich (2015) Raw Material Criticality in the Context of Classical Risk Assessment. Resources Policy, 44, 35–46. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.12.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golev, A., M. Scott, P.D. Erskine, S.H. Ali and G.R. Ballantyne (2014) Rare Earths Supply Chains: Current Status, Constraints and Opportunities. Resources Policy, 41, 52–59. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graedel, T.E., R. Barr, C. Chandler, T. Chase, J. Choi, L. Christoffersen, E. Friedlander, C. Henly, C. Jun, N.T. Nassar, D. Schechner, S. Warren, M.Y. Yang and C. Zhu (2012) Methodology of Metal Criticality Determination. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1021/es203534z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graedel, T.E., E.M. Harper, N.T. Nassar, P. Nuss and B.K. Reck (2015) Criticality of Metals and Metalloids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 112, 4257–4262. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1500415112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habib, K., P.K. Schibye, A.P. Vestbo, O. Dall and H. Wenzel (2014) Material Flow Analysis of NdFeB Magnets for Denmark: A Comprehensive Waste Flow Sampling and Analysis Approach. Environ Sci Technol, 48, 12229–12237. doi: 10.1021/es501975y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, E.M., Z. Diao, S. Panousi, P. Nuss, M.J. Eckelman and T.E. Graedel (2015) The Criticality of Four Nuclear Energy Metals. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 95, 193–201. doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.12.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, E.M., G. Kavlak, L. Burmeister, M.J. Eckelman, S. Erbis, V.S. Espinoza, P. Nuss and T.E. Graedel (2015) Criticality of the Geological Zinc, Tin, and Lead Family. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 19, 628–644. doi: 10.1111/jiec.12213
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatayama, H. and K. Tahara (2015a) Criticality Assessment of Metals for Japan’s Resource Strategy. Materials Transactions, 56, 229–235. doi: 10.2320/matertrans.M2014380
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatayama, H. and K. Tahara (2015b) Evaluating the Sufficiency of Japan’s Mineral Resource Entitlements for Supply Risk Mitigation. Resources Policy, 44, 72–80. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2015.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, T., C. Hendrickson, C. Higgins, H.S. Matthews and S. Suh (2007) A Mixed-Unit Input–Output Model for Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment and Material Flow Analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 41, 1024–1031. doi: 10.1021/es060871u
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helbig, C., L. Wietschel, A. Thorenz and A. Tuma (2016) How to Evaluate Raw Material Vulnerability – An Overview. Resources Policy, 48, 13–24. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschman, A.O. (1964) The Paternity of an Index. American Economic Review, 54, 761–762.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagawa, S., K. Hubacek, K. Nansai, M. Kataoka, S. Managi, S. Suh and Y. Kudoh (2013) Better Cars or Older Cars?: Assessing CO2 Emission Reduction Potential of Passenger Vehicle Replacement Programs. Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimensions, 23, 1807–1818. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagawa, S., K. Nansai, Y. Kondo, K. Hubacek, S. Suh, J. Minx, Y. Kudoh, T. Tasaki and S. Nakamura (2011) Role of Motor Vehicle Lifetime Extension in Climate Change Policy. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1184–1191. doi: 10.1021/es1034552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagawa, S., S. Okamoto, S. Suh, Y. Kondo and K. Nansai (2013) Finding Environmentally Important Industry Clusters: Multiway Cut Approach Using Nonnegative Matrix Factorization. Social Networks, 35, 423–438. doi: 10.1016/j.socnet.2013.04.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagawa, S., S. Suh, Y. Kondo and K. Nansai (2013) Identifying Environmentally Important Supply Chain Clusters in the Automobile Industry. Economic Systems Research, 25, 265–286. doi: 10.1080/09535314.2012.730992
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenzen, M., D. Moran, K. Kanemoto, B. Foran, L. Lobefaro and A. Geschke (2012) International Trade Drives Biodiversity Threats in Developing Nations. Nature, 486, 109–112. doi: 10.1038/nature11145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenzen, M., D. Moran, K. Kanemoto and A. Geschke (2013) Building Eora: A Global Multi-Region Input–Output Database at High Country and Sector Resolution. Economic Systems Research, 25, 20–49. doi: 10.1080/09535314.2013.769938
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leontief, W., F. Duchin and D.B. Szyld (1985) New Approaches in Economic-Analysis. Science, 228, 419–422. doi: 10.1126/science.228.4698.419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran, D., D. McBain, K. Kanemoto, M. Lenzen and A. Geschke (2015) Global Supply Chains of Coltan. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 19, 357–365. doi: 10.1111/jiec.12206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran, D. and R. Wood (2014) Convergence Between the Eora, Wiod, Exiobase, and Openeu’s Consumption-Based Carbon Accounts. Economic Systems Research, 26, 245–261. doi: 10.1080/09535314.2014.935298
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, R.L., E. Tzimas, P. Willis, J. Arendorf, L. Tercero Espinoza, P. Thompson, A. Chapman, N. Morley, E. Sims, R. Bryson, J. Pearson, F.M. Weidemann, M. Soulier, A. Lullmann, C. Sartorius and K. Ostertag (2013) Critical Metals in the Path Towards the Decarbonization of the EU Energy Sector: JRC Scientific and Policy Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
   Google Scholar
• Nakajima, K. and S. Nakamura (2006) Material Flow Analysis of Metals Based on the Waste Input–Output Model (WIO-MFA Model): Application to Material Cycle of Iron and Steel. Journal of the Japan Institute of Metals, 70, 618–621. doi: 10.2320/jinstmet.70.618
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura, S., Y. Kondo, S. Kagawa, K. Matsubae, K. Nakajima and T. Nagasaka (2014) MaTrace: Tracing the Fate of Materials Over Time and Across Products in Open-Loop Recycling. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 7207–7214. doi: 10.1021/es500820h
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura, S., Y. Kondo, K. Matsubae, K. Nakajima and T. Nagasaka (2011) UPIOM: A New Tool of MFA and Its Application to the Flow of Iron and Steel Associated with Car Production. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1114–1120. doi: 10.1021/es1024299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nansai, K., S. Kagawa, Y. Kondo, S. Suh, R. Inaba and K. Nakajima (2009) Improving the Completeness of Product Carbon Footprints Using a Global Link Input–Output Model: The Case of Japan. Economic Systems Research, 21, 267–290. doi: 10.1080/09535310903541587
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nansai, K., S. Kagawa, Y. Kondo, S. Suh, K. Nakajima, R. Inaba, Y. Oshita, T. Morimoto, K. Kawashima, T. Terakawa and S. Tohno (2012) Characterization of Economic Requirements for a “Carbon-Debt-Free Country”. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 155–163. doi: 10.1021/es202007b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nansai, K., Y. Kondo, S. Kagawa, S. Suh, K. Nakajima, R. Inaba and S. Tohno (2012) Estimates of Embodied Global Energy and Air-Emission Intensities of Japanese Products for Building a Japanese Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment Database with a Global System Boundary. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 9146–9154. doi: 10.1021/es2043257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nansai, K., K. Nakajima, S. Kagawa, Y. Kondo, Y. Shigetomi and S. Suh (2015) Global Mining Risk Footprint of Critical Metals Necessary for Low-Carbon Technologies: The Case of Neodymium, Cobalt, and Platinum in Japan. Environmental Science & Technology, 49, 2022–2031. doi: 10.1021/es504255r
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nansai, K., K. Nakajima, S. Kagawa, Y. Kondo, S. Suh, Y. Shigetomi and Y. Oshita (2014) Global Flows of Critical Metals Necessary for Low-Carbon Technologies: The Case of Neodymium, Cobalt, and Platinum. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 1391–1400. doi: 10.1021/es4033452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nassar, N.T., R. Barr, M. Browning, Z.W. Diao, E. Friedlander, E.M. Harper, C. Henly, G. Kavlak, S. Kwatra, C. Jun, S. Warren, M.Y. Yang and T.E. Graedel (2012) Criticality of the Geological Copper Family. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 1071–1078. doi: 10.1021/es203535w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nassar, N.T., T.E. Graedel and E.M. Harper (2015) By-Product Metals are Technologically Essential but Have Problematic Supply. Science Advances, 1, 10.
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council (2008) Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the U.S. Economy. Washington, DC, The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nuss, P. and M.J. Eckelman (2014) Life Cycle Assessment of Metals: A Scientific Synthesis. Plos One, 9, e101298, 1–12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuss, P., T.E. Graedel, E. Alonso and A. Carroll (2016) Mapping Supply Chain Risk by Network Analysis of Product Platforms. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 10, 14–22. doi: 10.1016/j.susmat.2016.10.002
   Google Scholar
• Oita, A., A. Malik, K. Kanemoto, A. Geschke, S. Nishijima and M. Lenzen (2016) Substantial Nitrogen Pollution Embedded in International Trade. Nature Geoscience, 9, 111–115. doi: 10.1038/ngeo2635
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panousi, S., E.M. Harper, P. Nuss, M.J. Eckelman, A. Hakimian and T.E. Graedel (2016) Criticality of Seven Specialty Metals. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 20, 837–853. doi: 10.1111/jiec.12295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, G.P., R. Andrew and J. Lennox (2011) Constructing an Environmentally-Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Table Using the GTAP Database. Economic Systems Research, 23, 131–152. doi: 10.1080/09535314.2011.563234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reck, B.K., D.B. Muller, K. Rostkowski and T.E. Graedel (2008) Anthropogenic Nickel Cycle: Insights Into Use, Trade, and Recycling. Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 3394–3400. doi: 10.1021/es072108l
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigetomi, Y., K. Nansai, S. Kagawa and S. Tohno (2014) Changes in the Carbon Footprint of Japanese Households in an Aging Society. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 6069–6080. doi: 10.1021/es404939d
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigetomi, Y., K. Nansai, S. Kagawa and S. Tohno (2015) Trends in Japanese Households’ Critical-Metals Material Footprints. Ecological Economics, 119, 118–126. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.08.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, B., S. Ziemann and M. Weil (2014) Criticality of Metals for Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems – Development Towards a Technology Specific Indicator. Metallurgical Research & Technology, 111, 191–200. doi: 10.1051/metal/2014010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprecher, B., R. Kleijn and G.J. Kramer (2014) Recycling Potential of Neodymium: The Case of Computer Hard Disk Drives. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 9506–9513. doi: 10.1021/es501572z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, Z., Y.P. Xiao, H. Agterhuis, J. Sietsma and Y.X. Yang (2016) Recycling of Metals from Urban Mines – A Strategic Evaluation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 2977–2987. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tisserant, A. and S. Pauliuk (2016) Matching Global Cobalt Demand Under Different Scenarios for Co-Production and Mining Attractiveness. Journal of Economic Structures, 5, 4, 1–19. doi: 10.1186/s40008-016-0035-x
   Google Scholar
• Tokito, S., S. Kagawa and K. Nansai (2016) Understanding International Trade Network Complexity of Platinum: The Case of Japan. Resources Policy, 49, 415–421. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.07.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tukker, A., E. Poliakov, R. Heijungs, T. Hawkins, F. Neuwahl, J.M. Rueda-Cantuche, S. Giljum, S. Moll, J. Oosterhaven and M. Bouwmeester (2009) Towards a Global Multi-Regional Environmentally Extended Input-Output Database. Ecological Economics, 68, 1928–1937. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.11.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U. S. Department of Energy (2011) Critical Materials Strategy. Washington, U.S. Department of Energy.
   Google Scholar
• Wiedmann, T.O., H. Schandl, M. Lenzen, D. Moranc, S. Suh, J. West and K. Kanemoto (2013) The Material Footprint of Nations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 6271–6276. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1220362110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcon, A., F. McMahon, M. Cervantes and K.P. Green (2013) Fraser Institute Annual: Survey of Mining Companies 2012/2013. Vancouver, The Fraser Institute.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank Development Research Group (2016) The Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2016 Update, www.govindicators.org.
   Google Scholar
• Yoshida, A. and A. Terazono (2010) Reuse of Secondhand TVs Exported from Japan to the Philippines. Waste Management, 30, 1063–1072. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2010.02.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziemann, S., A. Grunwald, L. Schebek, D.B. Muller and M. Weil (2013) The Future of Mobility and Its Critical Raw Materials. Revue De Metallurgie-Cahiers D Informations Techniques, 110, 47–54.
   Google Scholar
• Zimmermann, T. and S. Gösslgling-Reisemann (2013) Critical Materials and Dissipative Losses: A Screening Study. Science of the Total Environment, 461–462, 774–780. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar