The power of incrementalism: environmental regulation and technological change in pulp and paper bleaching in the US

References

• Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. Public Law 101-508, 5 November 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidheiny , S. 1992 . Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Deuelopment and the Environment , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press . B. Smart, Byond Compliance: A New Industry View of the Environment (Washington, DC, World Resources Institute, 1992).
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe , A.B. , Peterson , S.R. , Portney , P.R. and Stavins , R.N. 1995 . Environmental Regulation and the Competitiveness of U.S. Manufacturing: What Does the Evidence Tell Us . Journal of Economic Literature , 33 : 132 – 163 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothwell , R. and Zegveld , W. 1981 . Industrial Innovation and Public Policy: Preparing for the 1980s and the 1990s , Westport, CT : Greenwood Press . US Office of Technology Assessment, Industry , Technology, and the Environment: Competitive Challmges and Business Opportunities (Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office, 1994); Jaffe et al., op. cit., Ref. 3.
   Google Scholar
• Hausker , K. 1992 . The Politics and Economics of Auction Design in the Market for Sulfur Dioxide Pollution . Joumal ofpolicy Analysis and Management , 11 : 553 – 572 . Inform, Toxics Watch 1995 (New York, Inform, Inc., 1995); M. D. Stoughton, “An Evaluation of Voluntary Programs as Public Policies for Environmental Protection”, Thesis, MIT, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1995; R. N. Stavins, “What Can We Learn from the Grand Policy Experiment? Positive and Normative Lessons from the SO2 Allowance Trading”, Journal offionomic Perspectives, forthcoming; D. Burtraw, “The SO2 Emissions Trading Program: Cost Savings without Allowance Trades”, Contemporay Economic Policy, 14 , 1996, pp. 79-93; EPA, Partnerships in Preventing Pollution: A Catalogue qf the Agency's Partnership Program (Washington, DC, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator, 1996); S. Labatt & V. W. Madaren, Voluntary Corporate Environmental Initiatives: A Typology and Preliminay Investigation (Toronto, University of Toronto, 1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soete , L. and Arundel , A. 1995 . European Innovation Policy for Environmentally Sustainable Development: Application of a Systems Model of Technical Change . Journal of European Public Policy , 2 : 285 – 315 . J. Burt & P. Dillon, “What the US Can Learn from Germany's Packaging Takeback System”, Resource Recycling, September 1994, pp. 87-89; A. S. Rousso & S. P. Shah, “Packaging Taxes and Recycling Incentives: The German Green Dot Program”, National Tax Journal, 47, 1994, pp. 689-701; M. Crul & F. Schelleman, “Long-term Environmental Planning and the Implementation of Cleaner Technologies”, Industry and Environment, 18, 1995, p. 15; H. D. Johnson, “Green Plans: The Netherlands Leads the Way”, Earth Island Journal , Summer 1995, pp. 30-32.
   Google Scholar
• Todd , J.A. 1997 . Review, of the Common Sense Initiative , Gaithersburg, MD : The Scientific Consulting Group .
   Google Scholar
• Norberg-Bohm , V. 1997 . Stimulating “Green” Technological Innovation: An Analysis of Altemative Policy Mechanisms , Gaithersburg, MD : The Scientific Consulting Group .
   Google Scholar
• Ashford , N.A. , Ayers , C. and Stone , R.F. 1985 . Using Regulation to Change the Market for Innovation . The Harvard Environmental Law Review , 9 : 419 – 466 . Porter and van der Linde's recent work provides further examples, outlining numerous cases where environmental regulation has created an innovative response: M. E. Porter & C. van der Linde, “Toward a New Conception of the Environment-Competitiveness Relationship”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9, 1995, pp. 97-1 18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford , N.A. and Heaton , G.R. 1983 . Regulation and Technological Innovation in the Chemical Industry . Law and Conkmporary Problems , 46 : 109 – 157 .
   Google Scholar
• Abernathy , W.J. and Utterback , J. 1978 . Patterns of Industrial Innovation . Technology Review , 80 : 40 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abernathy , W.J. and Clark , K.B. 1985 . Innovation: Mapping the Winds of Creative Destruction . Research Policy , 14 : 41 – 47 . R. M. Henderson & K. B. Clark, “Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms”, Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 1990, pp. 9-30. We note that there has been considerable work increating organizational and market-based understandings of types of innovations, and these include the addition of other relevant categories, such as architectural innovation as defined by Henderson and Clark. However, in the context of this paper, the technological or product-based definition remains most relevant.
   Google Scholar
• Tushman , M. 1997 . “ Technology Cycles, Innovation Streams, and Ambidextrous Organizations: Organization Renewal through Innovation Streams and Strategic Change ” . In Managing Strategic Innovation and Change , Edited by: Tushman , M. and Anderson , P. 3 – 23 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hill , C. 1979 . Technological Innovationfor a Dynamic Economy , Edited by: Utterback , J. 199 – 204 . New York : Pergamon Press . Ashford et al., op. cit., Ref. 9; Porter & van der Linde, op. cit., Ref. 9
   Google Scholar
• Ashford and Heaton . 1979 . op. cit , Ref 10; Ashford et al., op. cit., Ref. 9.
   Google Scholar
• 1996 . “ President's Council on Sustainability ” . In Sustainable America. A New Cornensusfor Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environmentfor the Future Washington, DC
   Google Scholar
• Becker , M. and Ashford , N. 1995 . Exploiting Opportunities for Pollution Prevention in EPA Enforcement Agreements . Environmental Science and Technology , 29 : 220A – 226A .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter and van der Linde . 1995 . op. cit , 29 Ref 9
   Google Scholar
• Norberg-Bohm , V. and Rossi , M. 1997 . The Power of Incrementalism: Environmentally Induced Technological Change in Pulp and Paper Bleaching in the US , MIT . Working Paper, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Environmental Technology Project
   Google Scholar
• Wells Nutt, president Union Camp Technology, interview, 10 November 1995.
   Google Scholar
• DeKing , N. 1995 . Bleached Paperboard: Strong Markets Support Increased Output, Higher Prices . Pulp and Paper , July : 13
   Google Scholar
• Darnay , A.J. , ed. 1994 . Manufacturing USA: Industry Analyses, Statistics, and Leading Companies , Vol. 1 , Detroit : Gale Research . 4th Edn
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald , R.G. 1969 . Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Volume 1: The Pulping of Wood , Edited by: Franklin , J.N. Vol. 1 , New York : McGraw-Hill Book Company . 2nd Edn
   Google Scholar
• Miller Freeman . 1994 . Pulp and Paper 1995 North American Factbook , San Francisco : Miller Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Between 1970 and 1993, US production of paper products almost doubled, increasing from 49 million tons in 1970 to 85 million tons in 1993. Exports increased from 3 million tons in 1970 to 9 million tons in 1993 (American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA), Pajer, Paperboard and Wood Pulp, 1994 Statirtics (Washington, DC, AFPA, 1994)).
   Google Scholar
• 1994 . Ibid ,
   Google Scholar
• This quotation has numerous vague sources, including: an uncited 1988 US EPA document, Bureau of National Affairs, 'Excessive Discharges of Dioxin Confirmed in EPA/Industry Pulp and Paper Mill Study', Environment Reporter, 7 July 1989, pp. 507-508; an uncited 1985 EPA document, Thornton, The Product Is t h Poison: The Casefar a Chlorine Phase-out (Washington, DC, Greenpeace, 1991).
   Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency . 1984 . “ Office of Water Regulations and Standards ” . In Ambient Water Qualib Criteriafor 2,3,7,8- Tetrachlorodibezzo–p–dioxin , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• 1984 . Regulation of Dioxins, Dibenzofurans Sought Under TSCA by Environmental Groups . Environment Reporter , 26 October : 1064
   Google Scholar
• 1985 . Petitioners Criticize EPA's Response to Changes Requested in Dioxin Strategy . Environment Reporter , 8 March : 1912
   Google Scholar
• van Strum , C. and Merrell , P. 1987 . No Margin of Safety , Washington, DC : Greenpeace .
   Google Scholar
• US EPA . 1993 . “ Office of Water ” . In Development Documentfor Proposed Efficient Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Point Source Category , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• United States EPA . 1990 . “ Office of Water Regulations and Standards ” . In US EPA/Paper Indlrstty Cooperative Dioxin Study, 'The 104-Mill Study: Summary Report , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• Shabecoff , P. 1987 . Traces of Dioxin Found in Range of Paper Goods . New York Times , 24 September : 1 van Strum & Merrell, op. cit., Ref. 31.
   Google Scholar
• Environmental Defase Fund andJVational Wildliji Federation v. Thomas, Consent Decree, 27 July 1988, US District Court Civil Action No. 85-0973.
   Google Scholar
• These are called cluster rules because they cover both air and water pollution regulations ('Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category: National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production', Federal Reguter, 58, 17 December 1993).
   Google Scholar
• Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category; National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production', Federal Rep&, 61, 15 July 1996.
   Google Scholar
• EPA . 1997 . EPA's Final Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard “Chster Rule”—Overview , Washington, DC : Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Colburn , T. , Dumanoski , D. and Peterson Meyers , J. 1996 . Our Stolen Future , New York : Dutton . Natural Resources Defense Council, Environmental Defense Fund, Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy, and National Wildlife Federation, Comments on Proposed Rules, “Efficient Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Categoty; National Emission Standardsfor Hazardom Air Pollutants for Source Categoty: Pulp and Paper Production (Washington, DC, 18 April 1994).
   Google Scholar
• 1995 . Dioxin Risk: Are We Sure Yet? . Special Report in Environmental Science & Technology , 29 : 25A – 35A . For example, see the series of articles in Science on dioxin: three articles by Leslie Roberts in 1991-“Dioxin Risks Revisited” (8 February, pp. 624-626), “ P A Moves to Reassess the Risk of Dioxin” (17 May, p. 91 1) and “More Pieces in the Dioxin Puzzle” (18 October, p. 377)-and another article by Richard Stone in 1995, 'Panel Slams EPA's Dioxin Analysis' (26 May, p. 1124).;337A–338A.
   Google Scholar
• US EPA . 1995 . “ Science Advisory Board ” . In An SAB Report: A Second Look at Dioxin , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald and Franklin . 1995 . op. cit , Ref 23
   Google Scholar
• US EPA . 1993 . “ Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics ” . In Pollution Prevention 'Technologiesfor the Bleached Kraft Segment ofthe U S . Pulp and Paper Industry , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• SRI International . 1995 . Chemical Economics Handbook , Palo Alto, CA : SRI International .
   Google Scholar
• 1995 . op. cit , Ref 43; Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
   Google Scholar
• Interview with Harold Hintz, Assistant to Vice President Corporate Research Director, Westvaco, August, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Young , J. 1993 . Louisiana-Pacific's Samoa Mill Establishes TCF Pulp Production . Pulp and Paper , 67 : 61 – 63 . The Union Camp data were compiled from interviews with Union Camp employees and two articles in the journal Pulp and Paper. The Union Camp employees interviewed include: William Trice, Senior Vice President (21 September 1995) and Wells Nutt, President union Camp Technology (10 November 1995). The journal articles are: K. H. Ferguson, “Union Camp Begins Ozone Era with New Kraft Bleaching line at Franklin, Va”, Pulp and Paper, November 1992, pp. 42-55.; J. Young, “Union Camp Leads Ozone Pulping Drive in North American Mills”, Pulp and Paper, September 1994, pp. 69-7 1. The Louisiana-Pacific data were compiled from the article:
   Google Scholar
• Union Camp patented its high consistency ozone process and was the first company to commercialize it in 1992. Swedish firms commercialized medium consistency ozone bleaching in the same year.
   Google Scholar
• Site study of Scandinavian mills.
   Google Scholar
• Patrick , K.L. , Young , J. , Ferguson , K.H. and Harrison , A. 1994 . Closing the Loop: The Effluent-free Pulp and Paper Mill . Pulp and Paper , 67 : S1 – S24 . Supplement
   Google Scholar
• Adler , R.W. , Landman , J.C. and Cameron , D.M. 1993 . The Clean Water Act: 20 Years Later , Washington, DC : Island Press .
   Google Scholar
• Grant , R. 1996 . Rauma Opens with the Aim of Closing up . Pulp and Paper International , June : 31 – 35 .
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson , K.H. 1996 . Champion Moves Toward Closure with BFR Startup at Canton, NC . Pulp and Paper , April : 47 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• 1996 . op. cit , April Ref 36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paper Task Force (Duke University, Environmental Defense Fund et al.), Technical Supplement-Part IV: Bleached Kraft Pulp Manufacturing Environmental Companion of Bleached Kraji Pulp Man.facturing Technolops (White Paper 5) (Washington, DC, Environmental Defense Fund, 1995).
   Google Scholar
• Albert , R.J. 1994 . Effluent-free Pulp Mill Possible with Existing Fiberline Equipment . Pulp and Paper , July Patrick et al., op. cit., Ref. 47; F. Steffes & U. Germgard, “ECF, TCF Upgrade Choices Key on World Market, Environmental Forces”, Pulp and Paper, June 1995, pp. 83-92.
   Google Scholar
• Despite the dominance of a 'single' bleaching technology, the differences in bleach lines are significant. In the US, BKPMs operate 164 bleaching lines and use 115 different bleaching sequences. Paper Task Force (Duke University, Environmental Defense Fund et al.), Technical Supplemenk-Part IV: Bleached Kraft Pulp Manujactunw Economics of Kraj Pulpiq and Bleaching ( M i & Paper 7) (Washington, DC, Environmental Defense Fund, 1995).
   Google Scholar
• 1994 . Ibid , July Federal Register, op. cit., Ref 36.
   Google Scholar
• 1994 . op. cit , July Ref 37
   Google Scholar
• 1994 . Ibid , July Paper Task Force, op. cit., Ref. 55.
   Google Scholar
• 1994 . op. cit , July Ref 55
   Google Scholar
• Miller Freeman . 1996 . Pulp and Paper 1997 North American Factbook , San Francisco : Miller Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Porter , M. and van der Linde , C. 1995 . Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate . Harvard Business Review , September-October : 120 – 134 . N. Bonson, N. McCubbin & J. B. Sprague, “Kraft Mill Effluents in Ontario”, report prepared for the Technical Advisory Committee, Pulp and Paper Sector of MISA, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, 29 March 1988, p. 166).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , J. 1994 . Champion Adds New Bleaching Technology to OD100 Process . Pulp and Paper , September : 56 – 60 . Since completing the research on this project, Consolidated Papers has installed an ozone bleaching system and Champion International has pursued a closed-loop bleaching system with its patented technology, “bleached filtrate recycling” (see Anonymous, “Consolidated Paper Inc.”, Pulp and Paper, 29 January 1996;
   Google Scholar
• Utterback . 1994 . op. cit , September Ref 11
   Google Scholar
• Nelson , R.R. and Winter , S.G. 1982 . An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change , Cambridge, MA : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . N. Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982).
   Google Scholar
• Boden , M. 1994 . Shifting the Strategic Paradigm: The Case of the Catalytic Converter . Technology Analysis and Strategic Management , 6
   Google Scholar
• US EPA . 1993 . Development Document for Proposed Efficient Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Point Source Catgory , Washington, DC : US EPA .
   Google Scholar
• 1993 . op. cit , : 139 – 144 . Ref 51
   Google Scholar
• Graham , J.D. 1995 . Edging toward Sanity on Regulatory Risk Reform . Issues in Science & Technology , Summer : 61 – 66 . A. M. Finkel & D. Golding (Eds), Worst Things First? The Debate over Risk-based ,Vational Environmental Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1994); J. C. Davies, Comparing Environmental Risks: Toolsfor Setting Government Priorities (Washington, DC, Resources for the Future, 1996).
   Google Scholar
• Butraw . 1995 . op. cit , Summer Ref 5
   Google Scholar
• Bonifant , B. and Ratcliffe , I. 1994 . Competitive Implications of Environmental Regulation of Chlorinated Oranic Releases in the Pulp and Paper Industry , Washington, DC : Management Institute for Environment and Business .
   Google Scholar
• Albert . 1994 . op. cit , Ref 56., Patrick et al., op.cit., Ref. 50.
   Google Scholar
• EPA . 1997 . The Voluntary Advanced Technologies Incentives Program , Washington, DC : Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Wallace , D. 1995 . Environmental Policy and Industrial Innovation: Strategies in Europe, the US and Japan , 43 – 62 . London : Earthscan Publications .
   Google Scholar