Balancing disfigurement and fear of disease progression: Patient perceptions of HIV body fat redistribution

References

• Ablon , J. 1981 . Stigmatized health conditions . Social Science and Medicine , 15B : 5 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• AIDS Clinical Trials Group, NIH/NIAID, Outcomes Committee . Assessment of body change and distress n.d . Available at Adult Quality of life Forms Downloading Area, http://www.fstrf.org/qol/aactg/adult-ql.html Accessed May 31 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Ainlay , S.C. , Becker , G. and Coleman , L.M. 1986 . “ Stigma reconsidered ” . In The dilemma of difference: A multidisciplinary view of stigma , Edited by: Ainlay , S.C. , Becker , G. and Coleman , L.M. 1 – 13 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Alonzo , A.A. and Reynolds , N.R. 1995 . Stigma, HIV and AIDS: An exploration and elaboration of a stigma trajectory . Social Science and Medicine , 41 : 303 – 315 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ammassari , A. , Antinori , A. , Cozzi-Lepri , A. , Trotta , M.P. , Nasti , G. Ridolfo , A.L. 2002 . Relationship between HAART adherence and adipose tissue alterations . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 31 ( Suppl. 3 ) : S140 – S144 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbaro , G. 2003 . Highly active antiretroviral therapy and the cardiovascular system: The heart of the matter . Pharmacology , 69 : 177 – 179 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbaro , G. , Di Lorenzo , G. , Cirelli , A. , Grisorio , B. , Lucchini , A. Hazra , C. 2003 . An open-label, prospective, observational study of the incidence of coronary artery disease in patients with HIV infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy . Clinical Therapeutics , 25 : 2405 – 2418 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belloso , W.H. , Quiros , R.E. , Ivalo , S.A. , Perman , M.I. , Galich , A.M. Stern , L.D. 2003 . Agreement analysis of variables involved in lipodystrophy syndrome definition in HIV-infected patients . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 32 : 104 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernasconi , E. , Boubaker , K. , Junghans , C. , Flepp , M. , Furrer , H.J. Haensel , A. 2002 . Abnormalities of body fat distribution in HIV-infected persons treated with antiretroviral drugs: The Swiss HIV cohort study . Journal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 31 : 50 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanch , J. , Rousaud , A. , Martinez , E. , De Lazzari , E. , Peri , J.M. Milinkovic , A. 2002 . Impact of lipodystrophy on the quality of life of HIV-1-infected patients . Journal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 31 : 404 – 407 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr , A. 2003 . HIV lipodystrophy: Risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnosis and management . Aids , 17 ( Suppl. 1 ) : S141 – S148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr , A. , Emery , S. , Law , M. , Puls , R. , Lundgren , J.D. and Powderly , W.G. 2003 . An objective case definition of lipodystrophy in HIV-infected adults: A case-control study . Lancet , 361 : 726 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , D. , Misra , A. and Garg , A. 2002 . Clinical review 153: Lipodystrophy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism , 87 : 4845 – 4856 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cofrancesco , J. Jr , Brown , T. , & Martins , C.R. (2004) . Management options for facial lipoatrophy . AIDS Reader , 14 , 639 – 640 , 645–650 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colagreco , J.P. 2004 . Cardiovascular considerations in patients treated with HIV protease inhibitors . Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care , 15 : 30 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad , P. 1986 . The social meaning of AIDS . Social Policy , 20 : 51 – 61 .
   Google Scholar
• Corless , I.B. , Nicholas , P.K. , Mcgibbon , C.A. and Wilson , C. 2004 . Weight change, body image and quality of life in HIV disease: A pilot study . Applied Nursing Research , 17 : 292 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotter , B.R. and Torriani , F.J. 2004 . Cardiovascular effects of antiretroviral therapy and noninvasive assessments of cardiovascular disease in HIV infection . Journal of Cardiovascular Toxicology , 4 : 281 – 286 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ena , J. , Benito , C. , Llacer , P. , Pasquau , F. and Amador , C. 2004 . Abnormal body fat distribution and type of antiretroviral therapy as predictors of cardiovascular disease risk in HIV-infected patients . Clinical Medicine , 122 : 721 – 726 .
   Google Scholar
• Engelson , E.S. 2003a . HIV lipodystrophy diagnosis and management. Body composition and metabolic alterations: Diagnosis and management . AIDS Reader , 13 : S10 – S14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engelson , E.S. 2003b . Interventions for visceral adiposity associated with human immunodeficiency virus: Application of a method for assessing efficacy . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 37 ( Suppl. 2 ) : S96 – S100 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fife , B.L. and Wright , E.R. 2000 . The dimensionality of stigma: A comparison of its impact on the self of persons with HIV/AIDS and cancer . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 41 : 50 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gervasoni , C. , Ridolfo , A.L. , Vaccarezza , M. , Fedeli , P. , Morelli , P. Rovati , L. 2004 . Long-term efficacy of the surgical treatment of buffalo hump in patients continuing antiretroviral therapy . Aids , 18 : 574 – 576 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman , E. 1963 . Stigma: Notes on the management of a spoiled identity , Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Green , M.L. 2002 . Evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in patients with HIV infection . Journal of General Internal Medicine , 17 : 797 – 810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinspoon , S. and Carr , A. 2005 . Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV-infected adults . New England Journal of Medicine , 352 : 48 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guaraldi , G. , Murri , R. , Orlando , G. , Orlandi , E. , Sterrantino , G. Borderi , M. 2003 . Morphologic alterations in HIV-infected people with lipodystrophy are associated with good adherence to HAART . HIV Clinical Trials , 4 : 99 – 106 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek , G.M. and Glunt , E.K. 1988 . An epidemic of stigma: Public reactions to AIDS . American Psychologist , 43 : 886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Highleyman , L. 2005 . Mortality trends: Toward a new definition of AIDS? . Beta , 17 : 18 – 28 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirsch , H.H. and Battegay , M. 2002 . Lipodystrophy syndrome by HAART in HIV-infected patients: Manifestation, mechanisms and management . Infection , 30 : 293 – 298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch , H.H. , Kaufmann , G. , Sendi , P. and Battegay , M. 2004 . Immune reconstitution in HIV-infected patients . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 38 : 1159 – 1166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , E.E. , Ferina , A. , Hastorf , A.H. , Markus , H. , Miller , D.T. and Scott , R.A. 1984 . Social Stigma: The Psychology of Marked Relationships , New York : W.H. Freeman and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Katz , I. 1981 . Stigam: A social psychological analysis , Hillsdale , New Jersey : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Kino , T. and Chrousos , G.P. 2003 . AIDS-related insulin resistance and lipodystrophy syndrome . Current Drug Targets—Immune, Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders , 3 : 111 – 117 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krueger , R.A. 1994 . Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research , 2nd edition , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Lenert , L.A. , Feddersen , M. , Sturley , A. and Lee , D. 2002 . Adverse effects of medications and trade-offs between length of life and quality of life in human immunodeficiency virus infection . The American Journal of Medicine , 113 : 229 – 232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln , Y.C. and Guba , E.G. 1985 . Naturalistic Inquiry , Beverly Hills : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Lofland , J. and Lofland , L.H. 1984 . Analyzing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation and analysis , Belmont , CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Manfredi , R. , Calza , L. and Chiodo , F. 2004 . Another emerging event occurring during HIV infection treated with whatsoever antiretroviral therapy: Frequency and role of gynecomastia . Infections in Medicine , 12 : 51 – 59 .
   Google Scholar
• Mayer , K.H. , Hogan , J.W. , Smith , D. , Klein , R.S. , Schuman , P. Margolick , J. 2003 . Clinical and immunologic progression in HIV-infected US women before and after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy . Journal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 33 : 614 – 624 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocroft , A. , Ledergerber , B. , Katlama , C. , Kirk , O. , Reiss , P. D'arminio Monforte , A. 2003 . Decline in the AIDS and death rates in the EuroSIDA study: An observational study . Lancet , 362 : 22 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montessori , V. , Press , N. , Harris , M. , Akagi , L. and Montaner , J.S. 2004 . Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection . Canadian Medical Association Journal , 170 : 229 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , D.L. 1997 . Focus groups as qualitative research , 2nd edition , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Morse , J.M. and Field , P.A. 1995 . Qualitative research methods for health professionals , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Moyle , G.J. , Baldwin , C. , Langroudi , B. , Mandalia , S. and Gazzard , B.G. 2003 . A 48-week, randomized, open-label comparison of three abacavir-based substitution approaches in the management of dyslipidemia and peripheral lipoatrophy . Journal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome , 33 : 22 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholas , P.K. , Kirksey , K.M. , Corless , I.B. and Kemppainen , J. 2005 . Lipodystrophy and quality of life in HIV: Symptom management issues . Applied Nursing Research , 18 : 55 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolan , D. 2003 . Metabolic complications associated with HIV protease inhibitor therapy . Drugs , 63 : 2555 – 2574 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolan , D. , Reiss , P. and Mallal , S. 2005 . Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: A review of selected topics . Expert Opinion on Drug Safety , 4 : 201 – 218 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oette , M. , Juretzko , P. , Kroidl , A. , Sagir , A. , Wettstein , M. Siegrist , J. 2002 . Lipodystrophy syndrome and self-assessment of well-being and physical appearance in HIV-positive patients . AIDS Patient Care and STDS , 16 : 413 – 417 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orentreich , D. and Leone , A.S. 2004 . A case of HIV-associated facial lipoatrophy treated with 1000-cs liquid injectable silicone . Dermatologic Surgery , 30 : 548 – 551 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palella , F.J. Jr , Delaney , K.M. , Moorman , A.C. , Loveless , M.O. , Fuhrer , J. Satten , G.A. 1998 . Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: HIV outpatient study investigators . New England Journal of Medicine , 338 : 853 – 860 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piliero , P.J. , Hubbard , M. , King , J. and Faragon , J.J. 2003 . Use of ultrasonography-assisted liposuction for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-associated enlargement of the dorsocervical fat pad . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 37 : 1374 – 1377 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Power , R. , Tate , H.L. , Mcgill , S.M. and Taylor , C. 2003 . A qualitative study of the psychosocial implications of lipodystrophy syndrome on HIV positive individuals . Sexually Transmitted Infections , 79 : 137 – 141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , K.J. 2000 . Barriers to and facilitators of HIV-positive patients' adherence to antiretroviral treatment regimens . AIDS Patient Care and STDS , 14 : 155 – 168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez De La Concepcion , M.L. , Domingo , J.C. , Domingo , P. , Giralt , M. and Villarroya , F. 2004 . Uncoupling protein 1 gene expression implicates brown adipocytes in highly active antiretroviral therapy-associated lipomatosis . Aids , 18 : 959 – 960 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandelowski , M. 1995 . Sample size in qualitative research . Research in Nursing and Health , 18 : 179 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattler , F. 2003 . Body habitus changes related to lipodystrophy . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 36 : S84 – S90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekhar , R.V. , Jahoor , F. , Pownall , H.J. , Ballantyne , C.M. and Balasubramanyam , A. 2004 . Cardiovascular implications of HIV-associated dyslipidemic lipodystrophy . Current Atherosclerosis Reports , 6 : 173 – 179 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sepkowitz , K.A. 2001 . AIDS: The first 20 years . New England Journal of Medicine , 344 : 1764 – 1772 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauss , A. 1981 . “ Chronic illness ” . In The sociology of health and illness: Critical perspectives , Edited by: Kern , P.C.R. 138 – 149 . New York , NY : St. Martin's .
   Google Scholar
• Strauss , A. 1990 . “ A trajectory model for reorganizing the health care system ” . In Perspectives in nursing 1989–1991 , 221 – 231 . New York : National League for Nursing 44-2281 .
   Google Scholar
• Strauss , A.L. , Corbin , J. , Fagerhaugh , S. , Glaser , B.G. , Maines , D. Suczek , B. 1984 . Chronic illness and the quality of life , 2nd edition , St. Louis : Mosby .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , J.R. , Rachlis , A. and Phillips , E. 2003 . Buffalo-hump' dermatitis: A hat trick of antiretroviral side-effects . Contact Dermatitis , 48 : 169 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorne , S.E. 1993 . Negotiating health care: The social context of chronic illness , Newbury Park : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Tien , P.C. and Grunfeld , C. 2004 . What is HIV-associated lipodystrophy? Defining fat distribution changes in HIV infection . Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases , 17 : 27 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gaal , L.F. , Mertens , I.L. and Abrams , P.J. 2003 . Health risks of lipodystrophy and abdominal fat accumulation: Therapeutic possibilities with leptin and human growth hormone . Growth Hormone & IGF Research , 13(Suppl. A) : S4 – S9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren , S.M. , & May , J.W. Jr (2005) . Images in clinical medicine: Lipodystrophy induced by antiretroviral therapy . New England Journal of Medicine , 352, 63 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wohl , D.A. 2004 . Diagnosis and management of body morphology changes and lipid abnormalities associated with HIV Infection and its therapies . Topics in HIV Medicine , 12 : 89 – 93 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar