Publication Cover
AIDS Care
Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV
Volume 33, 2021 - Issue 7
514
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Executive function in HIV-affected children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analyses

ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 833-857 | Received 27 Apr 2020, Accepted 04 Jan 2021, Published online: 25 Mar 2021

References

  • Alvarez-Bueno, C., Pesce, C., Cavero-Redondo, I., Sanchez-Lopez, M., Martinez-Hortelano, J. A., & Martinez-Vizcaino, V. (2017). The effect of physical activity interventions on children’s cognition and metacognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(9), 729–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.012
  • Ananworanich, J., Melvin, D., Amador, J. T. R., Childs, T., Medin, G., Boscolo, V., Compagnucci, A., Kanjanavanit, S., Montero, S., & Gibb, D. M. (2016). Neurocognition and quality of life after reinitiating antiretroviral therapy in children randomized to planned treatment interruption. Aids (London, England), 30(7), 1075–1081. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000001011
  • Anderson, V., Spencer-Smith, M., Coleman, L., Anderson, P., Williams, J., Greenham, M., Leventer, R. J., & Jacobs, R. (2010). Children’s executive functions: Are they poorer after very early brain insult. Neuropsychologia, 48(7), 2041–2050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.03.025
  • Arenas-Pinto, A., Castro, H., Melvin, D., Le Prevost, M., Foster, C., Sturgeon, K., Winston, A., Thompson, L., Gibb, D., & Judd, A. (2019, March 4–7). Focused cognitive function testing in young people with perinatal HIV in England [Paper presentation]. CROI, Seattle, Washington. https://www.croiconference.org/sessions/focused-cognitive-function-testing-young-people-perinatal-hiv-england
  • Ashby, J., Foster, C., Garvey, L., Wan, T., Allsop, J., Paramesparan, Y., Taylor-Robinson, S. D., Fidler, S., & Winston, A. (2015). Cerebral function in perinatally HIV-infected young adults and their HIV-uninfected sibling controls. HIV Clinical Trials, 16(2), 81–87. https://doi.org/10.1179/1528433614z.0000000003
  • Bagenda, D., Nassali, A., Kalyesubula, I., Sherman, B., Drotar, D., Boivin, M. J., & Olness, K. (2006). Health, neurologic, and cognitive status of HIV-infected, long-surviving, and antiretroviral-naive Ugandan children. Pediatrics, 117(3), 729–740. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2699
  • Baker, L. M., Paul, R. H., Heaps, J. M., Westerhaus, E., Chang, J. Y., Williams, S., Brier, M. R., Plax, K., & Ances, B. M. (2014). Impact of human immunodeficiency virus on neurocognition and risky behaviors in young adults. Journal of NeuroVirology, 20(5), 466–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-014-0264-4
  • Bangirana, P., Boivin, M. J., Ruel, T., & Achan, J. (2015, July 17–18). Long term effect of PI based ART versus NNRTI based ART on neuropsychological functioning in children [Paper presentation]. International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Vancouver, Canada. http://regist2.virology-education.com/abstractbook/2015_8.pdf
  • Bangirana, P., Giordani, B., John, C. C., Page, C., Opoka, R. O., & Boivin, M. J. (2009). Immediate neuropsychological and behavioral benefits of computerized cognitive rehabilitation in Ugandan pediatric cerebral malaria survivors. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30(4), 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181b0f01b
  • Bangirana, P., Ruel, T., Boivin, M. J., Satish, P., Giron, L., Sikorskii, A., Banik, A., & Achan, J. (2016, July 15–16). Subtype A is not associated with poorer neurocognitive outcomes than subtype D in HIV-infected children receiving antiretroviral therapy [Paper presentation]. International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Durban, South Africa. http://www.infectiousdiseasesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/8th-HIVPediatrics_abstractbook_web.pdf
  • Bass, J. K., Opoka, R., Familiar, I., Nakasujja, N., Sikorskii, A., Awadu, J., Givon, D., Shohet, C., Murray, S. M., Augustinavicius, J., Mendelson, T., & Boivin, M. (2017). Randomized controlled trial of caregiver training for HIV-infected child neurodevelopment and caregiver well being. Aids (London, England), 31(13), 1877–1883. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000001563
  • Bender, R., Bunce, C., Clarke, M., Gates, S., Lange, S., Pace, N. L., & Thorlund, K. (2008). Attention should be given to multiplicity issues in systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 61(9), 857–865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.03.004
  • Benki-Nugent, S., Wamalwa, D., Laboso, T., Tamasha, N., Otieno, M., Bangirana, P., Njuguna, I., Tapia, K., Richardson, B., Maleche-Obimbo, E., Boivin, M. J., Semrud-Clikeman, M., & John-Stewart, G. (2016, July 15–16). HIV-infected children who initiated ART during infancy (early ART) have improved neurocognitive outcomes compared with late-treated children [Paper presentation]. International Workshop on HIV Pediatrics, Durban, South Africa. http://www.infectiousdiseasesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/8th-HIVPediatrics_abstractbook_web.pdf
  • Bergman Nutley, S., Darki, F., & Klingberg, T. (2014). Music practice is associated with development of working memory during childhood and adolescence. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00926
  • Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
  • Bisiacchi, P., Mento, G., Tarantino, V., & Burlina, A. (2018). Subclinical executive function impairment in children with asymptomatic, treated phenylketonuria: A comparison with children with immunodeficiency virus. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 35(3-4), 200–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2017.1396207
  • Blakemore, S. J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3-4), 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x
  • Blanchette, N., Smith, M. L., King, S., Fernandes-Penney, A., & Read, S. (2002). Cognitive development in school-age children with vertically transmitted HIV infection. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(3), 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2103_1
  • Blokhuis, C., Peeters, C. F. W., Cohen, S., Scherpbier, H. J., Kuijpers, T. W., Reiss, P., Kootstra, N. A., Teunissen, C. E., & Pajkrt, D. (2019). Systemic and intrathecal immune activation in association with cerebral and cognitive outcomes in paediatric HIV. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 8004. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44198-z
  • Boivin, M. J., Busman, R. A., Parikh, S. M., Bangirana, P., Page, C. F., Opoka, R. O., & Giordani, B. (2010). A pilot study of the neuropsychological benefits of computerized cognitive rehabilitation in Ugandan children with HIV. Neuropsychology, 24(5), 667–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019312
  • Boivin, M. J., Chernoff, M., Laughton, B., Bwakura-Dangarembizi, M., Kamthunzi, P., Barlow-Mosha, L., Violari, A., Cotton, M., & Palumbo, P. (2017, February 13–16). Neuropsychological outcomes in a two year African-based pediatric observational study [Paper presentation]. CROI, Seattle, Washington, US. http://www.croiconference.org/sites/default/files/posters-2017/826_Boivin.pdf
  • Boivin, M. J., Barlow-Mosha, L., Chernoff, M., Laughton, B., Zimmer, B., Joyce, C., bwakura-Dangarembizi, M., Ratswana, M., Abrahams, N., Fairlie, L., Gous, H., Kamthunzi, P., McCarthy, K., Familiar-Lopez, I., Jean-Phillippe, P., Coetzee, J., Violari, A., Cotton, M., & Palumbo, P. (2018a). Neuropsychological performance in African children with HIV enrolled in a multisite antiretroviral clinical trial. Aids (London, England), 32(2), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000001683
  • Boivin, M. J., Chernoff, M., Laughton, B., Zimmer, B., Joyce, C., Barlow-Mosha, L., Bwakura-Dangarembizi, M., Ratswana, M., Fairlie, L., Kamthunzi, P., McCarthy, K., Jean-Philippe, P., Violari, A., Cotton, M., & Palumbo, P. (2018b, March 4–7). African multi-site 2-year study of neurocognition in HIV infected/affected children [Paper presentation]. CROI, Seattle, Washington. https://www.croiconference.org/sessions/african-multi-site-2-year-study-neurocognition-hiv-infectedaffected-children
  • Boivin, M. J., Davies, A. G., Mokili, J. K. L., Green, S. D. R., Giordani, B., & Cutting, W. A. M. (1995). A preliminary evaluation of the cognitive and motor effects on pediatric HIV infection in Zairian children. Health Psychology, 14(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.14.1.13
  • Boivin, M. J., Maliwichi-Senganimalunje, L., Ogwang, L. W., Kawalazira, R., Sikorskii, A., Familiar-Lopez, I., Kuteesa, A., Nyakato, M., Mutebe, A., Namukooli, J. L., Mallewa, M., Ruiseñor-Escudero, H., Aizire, J., Taha, T. E., & Fowler, M. G. (2019). Neurodevelopmental effects of ante-partum and post-partum antiretroviral exposure in HIV-exposed and uninfected children versus HIV-unexposed and uninfected children in Uganda and Malawi: A prospective cohort study. The Lancet HIV, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(19)30083-9
  • Boivin, M. J., Nakasujja, N., Familiar-Lopez, I., Murray, S. M., Sikorskii, A., Awadu, J., Shohet, C., Givon, D., Ruiseñor-Escudero, H., Schut, E. E., Opoka, R. O., & Bass, J. K. (2017). Effect of caregiver training on the neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed uninfected children and caregiver mental health: A Ugandan cluster-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 38(9), 753–764. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000510
  • Boivin, M. J., Nakasujja, N., Sikorskii, A., Opoka, R. O., & Giordani, B. (2016). A randomized controlled trial to evaluate if computerized cognitive rehabilitation improves neurocognition in Ugandan children with HIV. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 32(8), 743–755. https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.2016.0026
  • Boivin, M. J., Ruel, T. D., Boal, H. E., Bangirana, P., Cao, H., Eller, L. A., Charlebois, E., Havlir, D. V., Kamya, M. R., Achan, J., Akello, C., & Wong, J. K. (2010b). HIV-subtype A is associated with poorer neuropsychological performance compared with subtype D in antiretroviral therapy-naive Ugandan children. Aids (London, England), 24(8), 1163–1170. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0b013e3283389dcc
  • Brahmbhatt, H., Boivin, M., Ssempijja, V., Kagaayi, J., Kigozi, G., Serwadda, D., Violari, A., & Gray, R. H. (2017). Impact of HIV and antiretroviral therapy on neurocognitive outcomes among school-aged children. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 75(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001305
  • Burkey, M. D., Murray, S. M., Bangirana, P., Familiar, I., Opoka, R. O., Nakasujja, N., Boivin, M., & Bass, J. K. (2015). Executive function and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Ugandan children with perinatal HIV exposure. Global Mental Health, 2, e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.2
  • Casey, B. J., & Caudle, K. (2013). The teenage brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413480170
  • Cerrillo-Urbina, A. J., Garcia-Hermoso, A., Sanchez-Lopez, M., Pardo-Guijarro, M. J., Santos Gomez, J. L., & Martinez-Vizcaino, V. (2015). The effects of physical exercise in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Child: Care, Health and Development, 41(6), 779–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12255
  • Chahroudi, A., Wagner, T. A., & Persaud, D. (2018). CNS persistence of HIV-1 in children: The untapped reservoir. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 15(5), 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-018-0412-1
  • Cluver, L., & Orkin, M. (2009). Cumulative risk and AIDS-orphanhood: Interactions of stigma, bullying and poverty on child mental health in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 69(8), 1186–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.033
  • Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. (2011). (J. P. Higgins & S. Green Eds. 5.1.0 ed.): The Cochrane Collaboration.
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Cohen, S., ter Stege, J. A., Geurtsen, G. J., Scherpbier, H. J., Kuijpers, T. W., Reiss, P., Schmand, B., & Pajkrt, D. (2015). Poorer cognitive performance in perinatally HIV-infected children versus healthy socioeconomically matched controls. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 60(7), 1111–1119. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu1144
  • Crowell, C. S., Malee, K. M., Yogev, R., & Muller, W. J. (2014). Neurologic disease in HIV-infected children and the impact of combination antiretroviral therapy. Reviews in Medical Virology, 24(5), 316–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.1793
  • Dahl, V., Gisslen, M., Hagberg, L., Peterson, J., Shao, W., Spudich, S., Price, R. W., & Palmer, S. (2014). An example of genetically distinct HIV type 1 variants in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma during suppressive therapy. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 209(10), 1618–1622. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit805
  • Debeaudrap, P., Bodeau-Livinec, F., Pasquier, E., Germanaud, D., Ndiang, S. T., Nlend, A. N., Ndongo, F. A., Guemkam, G., Penda, C. I., Warszawski, J., Koecher, D., Faye, A., & Tejiokem, M. C. (2018). Neurodevelopmental outcomes in HIV-infected and uninfected African children. Aids (London, England), 32(18), 2749–2757. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000002023
  • De Pereira, A. P. A., & Cunha, A. P. (2012). Processing speed and working memory in children with HIV. International Journal of Psychology, 47, 565–565.
  • Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). The early years: Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science, 318(5855), 1387–1388. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1151148
  • Doi, S. A., Barendregt, J. J., Khan, S., Thalib, L., & Williams, G. M. (2015). Advances in the meta-analysis of heterogeneous clinical trials II: The quality effects model. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 45(Pt A), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2015.05.010
  • Doi, S. A., Barendregt, J. J., Khan, S., Thalib, L., & Williams, G. M. (2015b). Simulation comparison of the quality effects and random effects methods of meta-analysis. Epidemiology, 26(4), e42–e44. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0000000000000289
  • Doi, S. A., & Thalib, L. (2008). A quality-effects model for meta-analysis. Epidemiology, 19(1), 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31815c24e7
  • Downs, S. H., & Black, N. (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non- randomised studies of health care interventions. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 52, 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.52.6.377
  • Eckard, A. R., Rosebush, J. C., O’Riordan, M. A., Graves, C. C., Alexander, A., Grover, A. K., Lee, S. T., Habib, J. G., Ruff, J. H., Chahroudi, A., & McComsey, G. A. (2017). Neurocognitive dysfunction in HIV-infected youth: Investigating the relationship with immune activation. Antiviral Therapy, 22(8), 669–680. https://doi.org/10.3851/imp3157
  • Ene, L., Marcotte, T. D., Umlauf, A., Grancea, C., Temereanca, A., Bharti, A., Achim, C. L., Letendre, S., & Ruta, S. M. (2016). Latent toxoplasmosis is associated with neurocognitive impairment in young adults with and without chronic HIV infection. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 299, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.08.003
  • Engle, P. L., & Black, M. M. (2008). The effect of poverty on child development and educational outcomes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136(1), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1425.023
  • Ezeamama, A. E., Kizza, F. N., Zalwango, S. K., Nkwata, A. K., Zhang, M., Rivera, M. L., Sekandi, J. N., Kakaire, R., Kiwanuka, N., & Whalen, C. C. (2016). Perinatal HIV status and executive function during school-age and adolescence. Medicine, 95(17), e3438. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000003438
  • Familiar, I., Chernoff, M., Ruisenor-Escudero, H., Laughton, B., Joyce, C., Fairlie, L., Bwakura-Dangarembizi , M., Kamthunzi, P., Barlow, L., Jean-Philippe , P., Zimmer, B., McCarthy, K., & Boivin, M. (2018, July 23–27). Caregiver depression and child neuropsychological outcomes in an observational study carried out in four sub-Saharan countries [Paper presentation]. Aids, Amsterdam, Netherlands. http://www.aids2018.org/Portals/4/File/AIDS2018_Abstract_book.pdf?ver=2018-08-06-160624-427
  • Familiar, I., Nakasujja, N., Bass, J., Sikorskii, A., Murray, S. M., Ruisenor-Escudero, H., Bangirana, P., Opoka, R., & Boivin, M. J. (2016). Caregivers’ depressive symptoms and parent-report of child executive function among young children in Uganda. Learning and Individual Differences, 46, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.01.012
  • Foster, S. B., Lu, M., Glaze, D. G., Reuben, J. M., Harris, L. L., Cohen, E. N., Lee, B.-N., Zhao, E., Paul, M. E., Schwarzwald, H., McMullen-Jackson, C., Clark, C., Armstrong, F. D., Brouwers, P. Y., Miller, T. L., Colin, A. A., Scott, G. B., Shahzeidi, S., Willen, E. J., … Shearer, W. T. (2012). Associations of cytokines, sleep patterns, and neurocognitive function in youth with HIV infection. Clinical Immunology, 144(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2012.04.004
  • Furuya-Kanamori, L., Barendregt, J. J., & Doi, S. A. R. (2018). A new improved graphical and quantitative method for detecting bias in meta-analysis. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 16(4), 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1097/xeb.0000000000000141
  • Gadow, K. D., Angelidou, K., Chernoff, M., Williams, P. L., Heston, J., Hodge, J., & Nachman, S. (2012). Longitudinal study of emerging mental health concerns in youth perinatally infected with HIV and peer comparisons. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 33(6), 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e31825b8482
  • Garcia-Navarro, C., Gonzalez-Tome, M. I., Zamora, B., Navarro Gomez, M., Cortes, L., Escosa, M., Jimenez de Ory, S., Mellado Peña, M. J., Ramos Amador, J. T., Rojo Conejo, P., Medin, G., Aviles, I., Ferrando, R., Otero, C., Falcón, D., Gavilan, C., & Lopez, C. (2013, October 16–19). Attentional deficits in a paediatric HIV-cohort. NeuroCoRISpeS [Paper presentation]. European AIDS Conference, Brussels, Belgium. http://www.abstractserver.com/eacsabstractarchive/
  • Garvie, P. A., Brummel, S. S., Allison, S. M., Malee, K. M., Mellins, C. A., Wilkins, M. L., Harris, L. L., Patton, E. D., Chernoff, M. C., Rutstein, R. M., Paul, M. E., & Nichols, S. L. (2017). Roles of medication responsibility, executive and adaptive functioning in adherence for children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 36(8), 751–757. https://doi.org/10.1097/inf.0000000000001573
  • Giordani, B., Novak, B., Sikorskii, A., Bangirana, P., Nakasujja, N., Winn, B. M., & Boivin, M. J. (2015). Designing and evaluating brain powered games for cognitive training and rehabilitation in at-risk African children. Global Mental Health, 2. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.5
  • Haase, V. G., Nicolau, N. C., Viana, V. N., Barreto, G. D. V., & Pinto, J. A. (2014). Executive function and processing speed in Brazilian HIV-infected children and adolescents. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 8(1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642014DN81000006
  • Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
  • Hoare, J., Fouche, J.-P., Spottiswoode, B., Donald, K., Philipps, N., Bezuidenhout, H., Mulligan, C., Webster, V., Oduro, C., Schrieff, L., Paul, R., Zar, H., Thomas, K., & Stein, D. (2012). A diffusion tensor imaging and neurocognitive study of HIV-positive children who are HAART-naive “slow progressors”. Journal of NeuroVirology, 18(3), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-012-0099-9
  • Hoare, J., Heany, S. J., Fouche, J.-P., Phillips, N., Joska, J. A., Myer, L., Zar, H. J., & Stein, D. J. (2019). Initiation of antiretroviral therapy after the critical neuronal developmental period of the second postnatal year affects white matter microstructure in adolescents living with HIV. Journal of NeuroVirology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-018-0712-7
  • Hoare, J., Myer, L., Heany, S., Fouche, J. P., Phillips, N., Zar, H., & Stein, D. (2019, March 4–7). Systemic inflammation and structural brain changes in perinatally HIV+ adolescents [Paper presentation]. CROI, Seattle, Washington. https://www.croiconference.org/sessions/systemic-inflammation-and-structural-brain-changes-perinatally-hiv-adolescents
  • Hoare, J., Phillips, N., Joska, J. A., Paul, R., Donald, K. A., Stein, D. J., & Thomas, K. G. (2016). Applying the HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder diagnostic criteria to HIV-infected youth. Neurology, 87(1), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000002669
  • Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12(4), F9–F15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x
  • Hooper, P., Jutai, J. W., Strong, G., & Russell-Minda, E. (2008). Age-related macular degeneration and low-vision rehabilitation: A systematic review. Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology, 43(2), 180–187. https://doi.org/10.3129/i08-001
  • Jacobs, R., Harvey, A. S., & Anderson, V. (2007). Executive function following focal frontal lobe lesions: Impact of timing of lesion on outcome. Cortex, 43(6), 792–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70507-0
  • James, A. N., & Ittyerah, M. (2016). An assessment of WISC-IIIUK on children with HIV infection. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(10), 2386–2397. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315577118
  • Judd, A., Le Prevost, M., Melvin, D., Arenas-Pinto, A., Parrott, F., Winston, A., Foster, C., Sturgeon, K., Rowson, K., & Gibb, D. M. (2016). Cognitive function in young persons with and without perinatal HIV in the AALPHI cohort in England: Role of non-HIV-related factors. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 63(10), 1380–1387. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw568
  • Judd, A., Nunn, A., Le Prevost, M., Sturgeon, K., Gibb, D. M., Arenas-Pinto, A., Melvin, D., Foster, C., & Winston, A. (2015). Neurocognitive function in perinatally HIV-infected young people and HIV-negative siblings in England. HIV Medicine, 16, 9. https://doi.org/10.1111/hiv.12264
  • Kamijo, K., Pontifex, M. B., O’Leary, K. C., Scudder, M. R., Wu, C.-T., Castelli, D. M., & Hillman, C. H. (2011). The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1046–1058. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01054.x
  • Kapetanovic, S., Griner, R., Zeldow, B., Nichols, S., Leister, E., Gelbard, H. A., Miller, T. L., Hazra, R., Mendez, A. J., Malee, K., Kammerer, B., & Williams, P. L. (2014). Biomarkers and neurodevelopment in perinatally HIV-infected or exposed youth. Aids (London, England), 28(3), 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000000072
  • Kapetanovic, S., Leister, E., Nichols, S., Miller, T., Tassiopoulos, K., Hazra, R., Gelbard, H. A., Malee, K. M., Kammerer, B., Mendez, A. J., & Williams, P. L. (2010). Relationships between markers of vascular dysfunction and neurodevelopmental outcomes in perinatally HIV-infected youth. Aids (London, England), 24(10), 1481–1491. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833a241b
  • Kerr, S. J., Puthanakit, T., Thongpaibul, K., Malee, K. M., Ly, P. S., Suwanlerk, T., Sophonphan, J., Kosalaraksa, P., Ounchanum, P., Aurpibul, L., Kanjanavanit, S., Ngampiyaskul, C., Chettra, K., Paul, R., Ananworanich, J., & Mellins, C. A. (2018, July 23–27). Increased risk of executive, working memory, and emotional-behavioral problems among virologically well-controlled perinatally HIV-infected adolescents in Thailand and Cambodia [Paper presentation]. Aids, Amsterdam, Netherlands. http://www.aids2018.org/Portals/4/File/AIDS2018_Abstract_book.pdf?ver=2018-08-06-160624-427
  • Kim-Chang, J. J., Loop, M. S., Donovan, K., Hong, S., Fischer, B., Venturi, G., Garvie, P. A., Kohn, J., Rendina, H. J., Woods, S. P., Goodenow, M., Nichols, S., & Sleasman, J. W. (2019, March 4–7). SCD14, SICAM-1, and SVCAM-1 correlate with neurocognitive function in youth with HIV [Paper presentation]. CROI, Seattle, Washington. https://www.croiconference.org/sessions/scd14-sicam-1-and-svcam-1-correlate-neurocognitive-function-youth-hiv
  • Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., Gillberg, C. G., Forssberg, H., & Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD – a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010
  • Koekkoek, S., de Sonneville, L. M., Wolfs, T. F., Licht, R., & Geelen, S. P. (2008). Neurocognitive function profile in HIV-infected school-age children. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 12(4), 290–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2007.09.002
  • Koike, S., Hardy, R., & Richards, M. (2016). Adolescent self-control behavior predicts body weight through the life course: A prospective birth cohort study. International Journal of Obesity, 40, 71. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2015.213
  • Lakes, K. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2004). Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 283–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002
  • Lewis-de los Angeles, C. P., Williams, P. L., Huo, Y., Wang, S. D., Uban, K. A., Herting, M. M., Malee, K., Yogev, R., Csernansky, J. G., Nichols, S., Van Dyke, R. B., Sowell, E. R., & Wang, L. (2017). Lower total and regional grey matter brain volumes in youth with perinatally-acquired HIV infection: Associations with HIV disease severity, substance use, and cognition. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 62, 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2017.01.004
  • Linn, K., Fay, A., Meddles, K., Isbell, S., Lin, P. N., Thair, C., Heaps, J., Paul, R., & Mar, S. S. (2015). HIV-related cognitive impairment of orphans in Myanmar with vertically transmitted HIV taking antiretroviral therapy. Pediatric Neurology, 53(6), 485–490.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2015.08.004
  • Llorente, A. M., Brouwers, P., Leighty, R., Malee, K., Smith, R., Harris, L., Serchuck, L. K., Blasini, I., & Chase, C. (2014). An analysis of select emerging executive skills in perinatally HIV-1-infected children. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 3(1), 10–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2012.686853
  • Loo, K. K., Rizzo, S., Chen, Q., Weiss, R. E., Sugar, C. A., Ettyang, G., Ernst, J., Samari, G., & Neumann, C. G. (2017). Effects of biscuit-type feeding supplementation on the neurocognitive outcomes of HIV-affected school-age children: A randomized, double-blind, controlled intervention trial in Kenya. Family Medicine and Community Health, 5(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.15212/fmch.2017.0130
  • Maganlal, U. (2013). Executive function performance in HIV positive adolescents on anti-retroviral treatment in Johannesburg, South Africa [M.A. Masters, University of the Witwatersrand]. http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/13960/U%20Maganlal%20-%20Executive%20Function%20in%20HIV%20Positive%20Adolescents%20Final%20Sep%202013.pdf?sequence=3 Available from OCLC WorldCat database
  • Malee, K. M., Chernoff, M. C., Sirois, P. A., Williams, P. L., Garvie, P. A., Kammerer, B. L., Harris, L. L., Nozyce, M. L., Yildirim, C., & Nichols, S. L. (2017). Impact of perinatally acquired HIV disease upon longitudinal changes in memory and executive functioning. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 75(4), 455–464. https://doi.org/10.1097/qai.0000000000001441
  • Martin, S. C., Wolters, P. L., Toledo-Tamula, M. A., Zeichner, S. L., Hazra, R., & Civitello, L. (2006). Cognitive functioning in school-aged children with vertically acquired HIV infection being treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Developmental Neuropsychology, 30(2), 633–657. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn3002_1
  • Mellins, C. A., & Malee, K. M. (2013). Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: Lessons learned and current challenges. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18593. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18593
  • Miller, M., Nevado-Montenegro, A. J., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2012). Childhood executive function continues to predict outcomes in young adult females with and without childhood-diagnosed ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 657–668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9599-y
  • Milligan, R. (2016). A comparison of working memory profiles in HIV-infected and HIV-exposed uninfected children [PhD Doctoral thesis, University of the Witwatersrand]. OCLC WorldCat database.
  • Milligan, R., & Cockcroft, K. (2017). Working memory profiles in HIV-exposed, uninfected and HIV-infected children: A comparison with neurotypical controls. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00348
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108
  • Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Schellenberg, E. G., Cepeda, N. J., & Chau, T. (2011). Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1425–1433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611416999
  • Muenchhoff, M., Prendergast, A. J., & Goulder, P. J. R. (2014). Immunity to HIV in early life. Frontiers in Immunology, 5, 391. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00391
  • Nachman, S., Chernoff, M., Williams, P., Hodge, J., Heston, J., & Gadow, K. D. (2012). Human immunodeficiency virus disease severity, psychiatric symptoms, and functional outcomes in perinatally infected youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(6), 528–535. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1785
  • Nagarajan, R., Sarma, M. K., Thomas, M. A., Chang, L., Natha, U., Wright, M., Hayes, J., Nielsen-Saines, K., Michalik, D. E., Deville, J., Church, J. A., Mason, K., Critton-Mastandrea, T., Nazarian, S., Jing, J., & Keller, M. A. (2012). Neuropsychological function and cerebral metabolites in HIV-infected youth. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 7(4), 981–990. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-012-9407-7
  • Nichols, S. L., Bethel, J., Garvie, P. A., Patton, D. E., Thornton, S., Kapogiannis, B. G., Ren, W., Major-Wilson, H., Puga, A., & Woods, S. P. (2013). Neurocognitive functioning in antiretroviral therapy-naive youth with behaviorally acquired human immunodeficiency virus. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 763–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.07.006
  • Nichols, S. L., Bethel, J., Kapogiannis, B. G., Li, T., Woods, S. P., Patton, E. D., Ren, W., Thornton, S. E., Major-Wilson, H. O., Puga, A. M., Sleasman, J. W., Rudy, B. J., Wilson, C. M., & Garvie, P. A. (2016). Antiretroviral treatment initiation does not differentially alter neurocognitive functioning over time in youth with behaviorally acquired HIV. Journal of NeuroVirology, 22(2), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-015-0389-0
  • Nichols, S. L., Brummel, S. S., Smith, R. A., Garvie, P. A., Hunter, S. J., Malee, K. M., Kammerer, B. L., Wilkins, M. L., Rutstein, R., Tassiopoulos, K., Chernoff, M. C., & Mellins, C. A. (2015). Executive functioning in children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 34(9), 969–975. https://doi.org/10.1097/inf.0000000000000809
  • Nichols, S. L., Chernoff, M. C., Malee, K. M., Sirois, P. A., Woods, S. P., Williams, P. L., Yildirim, C., Delis, D., & Kammerer, B. (2016). Executive functioning in children and adolescents with perinatal HIV infection and perinatal HIV exposure. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 5(suppl 1), S15–s23. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piw049
  • Ofori-Mante, J. A., Kaul, A., Rigaud, M., Fidelia, A., Rochford, G., Krasinski, K., Chandwani, S., & Borkowsky, W. (2007). Natural history of HIV infected pediatric long-term or slow progressor population after the first decade of life. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 26(3), 217–220. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000254413.11246.e1.
  • Patel, P. B., Apornpong, T., Kerr, S. J., Puthanakit, T., Thongpibul, K., Kosalaraksa, P., Ounchanum, P., Kanjanavanit, S., Ngampiyaskul, C., Luesomboon, W., Penhusun, L., Chettra, K., Mellins, C., Malee, K., Spudich, S., Ananworanich, J., & Paul, R. (2018). Group based trajectory analysis of cognitive outcomes in children with perinatal HIV. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/398339
  • Phillips, N. J., Hoare, J., Stein, D. J., Myer, L., Zar, H. J., & Thomas, K. G. F. (2018). HIV-associated cognitive disorders in perinatally infected children and adolescents: A novel composite cognitive domains score. AIDS Care, 30(sup1), 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2018.1466982
  • Poon, K. (2018). Hot and cool executive functions in adolescence: Development and contributions to important developmental outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2311–2311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02311
  • Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011). Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008
  • Puthanakit, T., Ananworanich, J., Vonthanak, S., Kosalaraksa, P., Hansudewechakul, R., van der Lugt, J., Kerr, S. J., Kanjanavanit, S., Ngampiyaskul, C., Wongsawat, J., Luesomboon, W., Vibol, U., Pruksakaew, K., Suwarnlerk, T., Apornpong, T., Ratanadilok, K., Paul, R., Mofenson, L. M., Fox, L., … Ruxrungtham, K. (2013). Cognitive function and neurodevelopmental outcomes in HIV-infected children older than 1 year of age randomized to early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy: The PREDICT neurodevelopmental study. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 32. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e31827fb19d
  • Ravindran, O., Rani, M., & Priya, G. (2014). Cognitive deficits in HIV infected children. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 36(3), 255–259. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.135373
  • Robbins, R., Bucek, A., Raymond, J., Nguyen, N., Dolezal, C., Abrams, E., Wiznia, A., Leu, C. S., & Mellins, C. A. (2018, July 23–27). Neurocognitive outcomes among perinatally-HIV infected young adults [Paper presentation]. Aids, Amsterdam, Netherlands. http://www.aids2018.org/Portals/4/File/AIDS2018_Abstract_book.pdf?ver=2018-08-06-160624-427
  • Robbins, R. N., Zimmerman, R., Korich, R., Raymond, J., Dolezal, C., Choi, C. J., Leu, C. S., Nguyen, N., Malee, K., Wiznia, A., Abrams, E. J., & Mellins, C. A. (2020). Longitudinal trajectories of neurocognitive test performance among individuals with perinatal HIV-infection and -exposure: Adolescence through young adulthood. AIDS Care, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2019.1626343
  • Rochat, T. J., Houle, B., Stein, A., Coovadia, H., Coutsoudis, A., Desmond, C., Newell, M.-L., Bland, R. M., & Tumwine, J. K. (2016). Exclusive breastfeeding and cognition, executive function, and behavioural disorders in primary school-aged children in rural South Africa: A cohort analysis. PLoS Medicine, 13(6), e1002044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002044
  • Rosenberg, M., Pettifor, A., Duta, M., Demeyere, N., Wagner, R. G., Selin, A., MacPhail, C., Laeyendecker, O., Hughes, J. P., Stein, A., Tollman, S., Kahn, K., & Romer, D. (2018). Executive function associated with sexual risk in young South African women: Findings from the HPTN 068 cohort. PLoS One, 13(4), e0195217. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195217
  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Tomlinson, M., le Roux, I., Weichle, T., Stewart, J., Gordon, S., & Lin, C. (2018, July 23–27). Outcomes of South African mothers living with HIV (MLH) and their children compared to neighborhood peer mothers without HIV (MWOH) and their children over five years [Paper presentation]. Aids, Amsterdam, Netherlands. http://www.aids2018.org/Portals/4/File/AIDS2018_Abstract_book.pdf?ver=2018-08-06-160624-427
  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Tomlinson, M., Scheffler, A., Harris, D. M., & Nelson, S. (2017). Adjustment of a population of South African children of mothers living with/and without HIV through three years post-birth. AIDS and Behavior, 21(6), 1601–1610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1436-4
  • Ruel, T. D., Boivin, M. J., Boal, H. E., Bangirana, P., Charlebois, E., Havlir, D. V., Rosenthal, P. J., Dorsey, G., Achan, J., Akello, C., Kamya, M. R., & Wong, J. K. (2012). Neurocognitive and motor deficits in HIV-infected Ugandan children with high CD4 cell counts. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 54(7), 1001–1009. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir1037
  • Ruisenor-Escudero, H., Familiar, I., Nakasujja, N., Bangirana, P., Opoka, R., Giordani, B., & Boivin, M. (2015). Immunological correlates of behavioral problems in school-aged children living with HIV in Kayunga. Global Mental Health, 2, e9. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.7
  • Salama, C., Morris, M., Armistead, L., Koenig, L. J., Demas, P., Ferdon, C., & Bachanas, P. (2013). Depressive and conduct disorder symptoms in youth living with HIV: The independent and interactive roles of coping and neuropsychological functioning. AIDS Care, 25(2), 160–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2012.687815
  • Sawyer, S. M., Azzopardi, P. S., Wickremarathne, D., & Patton, G. C. (2018). The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(3), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30022-1
  • Schlam, T. R., Wilson, N. L., Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Ayduk, O. (2013). preschoolers’ delay of gratification predicts their body mass 30 years later. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162(1), 90–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.06.049
  • Sherr, L., Hensels, I. S., Tomlinson, M., Skeen, S., & Macedo, A. (2018). Cognitive and physical development in HIV-positive children in South Africa and Malawi: A community-based follow-up comparison study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 44(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12533
  • Sherr, L., Macedo, A., Tomlinson, M., Skeen, S., & Cluver, L. D. (2017). Could cash and good parenting affect child cognitive development? A cross-sectional study in South Africa and Malawi. BMC Pediatrics, 17(1), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-017-0883-z
  • Sirois, P. A., Chernoff, M. C., Malee, K. M., Garvie, P. A., Harris, L. L., Williams, P. L., Woods, S. P., Nozyce, M. L., Kammerer, B. L., Yildirim, C., & Nichols, S. L. (2016). Associations of memory and executive functioning with academic and adaptive functioning among youth with perinatal HIV exposure and/or infection. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 5(Suppl 1), S24–S32. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piw046
  • Smalley, S. L., Kitil, M. J., Galla, B. M., Kaiser-Greenland, S., Locke, J., Ishijima, E., & Kasari, C. (2010). Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 26(1), 70–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377900903379125
  • Smith, R., Chernoff, M., Williams, P. L., Malee, K. M., Sirois, P. A., Kammerer, B., Wilkins, M., Nichols, S., Mellins, C., Usitalo, A., Garvie, P., & Rutstein, R. (2012). Impact of HIV severity on cognitive and adaptive functioning during childhood and adolescence. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 31. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e318253844b
  • Sturdevant, C. B., Dow, A., Jabara, C. B., Joseph, S. B., Schnell, G., Takamune, N., Mallewa, M., Heyderman, R. S., Van Rie, A., Swanstrom, R., & Douek, D. C. (2012). Central nervous system compartmentalization of HIV-1 subtype C variants early and late in infection in young children. PLOS Pathogens, 8(12), e1003094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003094
  • Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Bergman Nutley, S., Bohlin, G., & Klingberg, T. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 12(1), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00745.x
  • Tyor, W., Fritz-French, C., & Nath, A. (2013). Effect of HIV clade differences on the onset and severity of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Journal of NeuroVirology, 19(6), 515–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-013-0206-6
  • Uban, K. A., Herting, M. M., Williams, P. L., Ajmera, T., Gautam, P., Huo, Y., Malee, K. M., Yogev, R., Csernansky, J. G., Wang, L., Nichols, S. L., & Sowell, E. R. (2015). White matter microstructure among youth with perinatally acquired HIV is associated with disease severity. Aids (London, England), 29(9), 1035–1044. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000000648
  • Van Dalen, Y. W., Blokhuis, C., Cohen, S., Ter Stege, J. A., Teunissen, C. E., Kuhle, J., Kootstra, N. A., Scherpbier, H. J., Kuijpers, T. W., Reiss, P., Majoie, C. B. L. M., Caan, M. W. A., & Pajkrt, D. (2016). Neurometabolite alterations associated with cognitive performance in perinatally HIV-infected children. Medicine, 95, e3093. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000003093
  • Van den Hof, M., ter Haar, A. M., Scherpbier, H. J., van der Lee, J. H., Reiss, P., Wit, F. W. N. M., Oostrom, K. J., & Pajkrt, D. (2019). Neurocognitive development in perinatally HIV-infected adolescents on long-term treatment compared to healthy matched controls: A longitudinal study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 70(7), 1364–1371. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz386.
  • Walker, K. A., & Brown, G. G. (2018). HIV-associated executive dysfunction in the era of modern antiretroviral therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40(4), 357–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2017.1349879
  • Walker, S. Y., Pierre, R. B., Christie, C. D., & Chang, S. M. (2013). Neurocognitive function in HIV-positive children in a developing country. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 17(10), e862–e867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.014
  • Warszawski, J., Lechenadec, J., Faye, A., Dollfus, C., Firtion, G., Meyer, L., Douard, D., Monpoux, F., Tricoire, J., Benmebarek, Y., Rouzioux, C., & Blanche, S. (2007). Long-term nonprogression of HIV infection in children: Evaluation of the ANRS prospective French Pediatric Cohort. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 45(6), 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1086/521165
  • Webb, L., Perry-Parrish, C., Ellen, J., & Sibinga, E. (2018). Mindfulness instruction for HIV-infected youth: A randomized controlled trial. AIDS Care, 688–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2017.1394434
  • Weber, V., Radeloff, D., Reimers, B., Salzmann-Manrique, E., Bader, P., Schwabe, D., & Konigs, C. (2017). Neurocognitive development in HIV-positive children is correlated with plasma viral loads in early childhood. Medicine, 96(23), e6867. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000006867
  • West, A. (2001). Comparison of neuropsychological performances of asymptomatic HIV positive and HIV negative adolescents and young adults (immune deficiency) [PhD in Psychology, Palo Alto University]. ProQuest database.
  • Willen, E. J., Cuadra, A., Arheart, K. L., Post, M. J. D., & Govind, V. (2017). Young adults perinatally infected with HIV perform more poorly on measures of executive functioning and motor speed than ethnically matched healthy controls. AIDS Care, 29(3), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1234677
  • Williams, L. B., Geffken, G. R., Silverstein, J. H., & Storch, E. A. (2007). Type 1 diabetes in youth: the relationship between adherence and executive functioning. Children’s Health Care, 36(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/02739610701335001
  • Yadav, S. K., Gupta, R. K., Hashem, S., Bhat, A. A., Garg, R. K., Venkatesh, V., Gupta, P. K., Singh, A. K., Chaturvedi, S., Ahmed, S. N., Azeem, M. W., & Haris, M. (2018). Changes in resting-state functional brain activity are associated with waning cognitive functions in HIV-infected children. NeuroImage: Clinical, 20, 1204–1210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.10.028
  • Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6(4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.x

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.