Neuroimaging of cognitive disability in schizophrenia: Search for a pathophysiological mechanism

References

• Anand A, Li Y, Wang Y, Wu J, Gao S, Bukhari L, et al. Antidepressant effect on connectivity of the mood-regulating circuit: An fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30: 1334–1344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen NC, O’Leary DS, Cizadlo T, Arndt S, Rezai K, Boles Ponto LL, et al. Schizophrenia and cognitive dysmetria: A positron-emission tomography study of dysfunctional prefrontal-thalamic-cerebellar circuitry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1996; 93: 9985–9990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen NC, O'Leary DS, Flaum M, Nopoulos P, Watkins GL, Boles Ponto LL, et al. Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: Distributed dysfunctional circuits in neuroleptic-naïve patients. Lancet 1997; 349: 1730–1734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen NC, Rezai K, Alliger R, Swayze VW, Flaum M, Kirchner P, et al. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naïve patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1992; 49: 943–958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley AD. Working Memory. Oxford University Press, New York 1986
   Google Scholar
• Banich M. Neuropsychology: The neural bases of mental function. Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1997
   Google Scholar
• Barch DM, Carter CS, Braver TS, Sabb FW, MacDonald A, Noll DC, et al. Selective deficits in prefrontal cortex function in medication-naïve patients with schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2001; 58: 280–288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg EA. A simple, objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking. Journal of General Psychology 1948; 39: 15–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman KF, Illowsky BP, Weinberger DR. Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. IV: Further evidence for regional and behavioral specificity. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988; 45: 616–622
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman KF, Zec RF, Weinberger DR. Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia II: Role of neuroleptic treatment, attention, and mental effort. Archives of General Psychiatry 1986; 43: 126–135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertolino A, Caforio G, Blasi G, De Candia M, Latorre V, Petruzzella V, et al. Interaction of COMT (Val(108/158)Met) genotype and olanzapine treatment on prefrontal cortical function in patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1798–1805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biswal B, Yetkin FZ, Haughton VM, Hyde JS. Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 1995; 34: 537–541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bleuler E. In T. B. J. Zinklin (Trans.), (1950). Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. International Universities Press, New York 1911
   Google Scholar
• Boksman K, Theberge J, Williamson P, Drost DJ, Malla A, Densmore M, et al. A 4.0-T fMRI study of brain connectivity during word fluency in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2005; 75: 247–263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braff DL. Information processing and attention dysfunctions in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1993; 19: 233–259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchsbaum MS, Ingvar DH, Kessler R, Waters RN, Cappelletti J, van Kammen DP, et al. Cerebral glucography with positron tomography. Use in normal subjects and in patients with schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1982; 39: 251–259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callaway E, Naghdi S. An information processing model for schizophrenia. Archieves of General Psychiatry 1982; 39: 339–347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Mattay VS, Langheim FJP, Duyn J, Coppola R, et al. Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia revisited. Cerebral Cortex 2000; 10: 1078–1092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Verchinski BA, Marenco S, Egan MF, Weinberger DR. Complexity of prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia: More than up or down. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003; 160: 2209–2215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callicott JH, Ramsey NF, Tallent K, Bertolino A, Knable MB, Coppola R, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging brain mapping in psychiatry: Methodological issues illustrated in a study of working memory in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 18: 186–196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter CS, MacDonald AW, Ross LL, Stenger VA. Anterior cingulate cortex activity and impaired self-monitoring of performance in patients with schizophrenia: An event-related fMRI study. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1423–1428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter CS, Robertson LC, Nordahl TE, Chaderjian M, Kraft L, O'Shora-Celaya L. Spatial working memory deficits and their relationship to negative symptoms in unmedicated schizophrenia patients. Biolological Psychiatry 1996; 40: 930–932
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catafau AM, Parellada E, Lomena FJ, Bernardo M, Pavia J, Ros D, et al. Prefrontal and temporal blood flow in schizophrenia: Resting and activation technetium-99 m-HMPAO SPECT patterns in young neuroleptic-naïve patients with acute disease. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 1994; 35: 935–941
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen JD, Braver TS, O’Reilly RC. A computational approach to prefrontal cortex, cognitive control and schizophrenia: Recent developments and current challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B 1996; 351: 1515–1527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen JD, Dunbar K, McClelland JL. On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review 1990; 97: 332–361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen JD, Servan-Schreiber D. Context, cortex, and dopamine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review 1992; 99: 45–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespo-Facorro B, Paradiso S, Andreasen NC, O’Leary DS, Watkins GL, Boles Ponto LL, et al. Recalling word lists reveals ‘cognitive dysmetria’ in schizophrenia: A positron emission tomography study. American Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 156: 386–392
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis VA, Bullmore ET, Brammer MJ, Wright I, Williams SCR, Morris RG, et al. Attenuated frontal activation during a verbal fluency task in patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1056–1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehaene S, Artiges E, Naccache L, Martelli C, Viard A, Schürhoff F, et al. Conscious and subliminal conflicts in normal subjects and patients with schizophrenia: The role of the anterior cingulate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 2003; 100: 13722–13727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dye SM, Spence SA, Bench CJ, Hirsch SR, Stefan MD, Sharma T, et al. No evidence for left superior temporal dysfunction in asymptomatic schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. PET study of verbal fluency. British Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 175: 367–374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebmeier KP, Lawrie SM, Blackwood DHR, Johnstone EC, Goodwin GM. Hypofrontality revisited: A high resolution single photon emission computed tomography study in schizophrenia. Journals of Neurology and Neurosurgery in Psychiatry 1995; 58: 452–456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher P, McKenna PJ, Friston KJ, Frith CD, Dolan RJ. Abnormal cingulate modulation of fronto-temporal connectivity in schizophrenia. NeuroImage 1999; 9: 337–342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen G, Ingvar DH. Absence of activation in frontal structures during psychological testing of chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Neurological Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1975; 38: 1027–1032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friston K. Functional and effective connectivity in neuroimaging: A synthesis. Human Brain Mapping 1994; 2: 56–78
   Google Scholar
• Friston KJ, Frith CD, Fletcher P, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS. Functional topography: Multidimensional scaling and functional connectivity in the brain. Cerebral Cortex 1996; 6: 156–164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS. Investigating a network model of word generation with positron emission tomography. Proceedings of Biological Science 1991; 244: 101–106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friston KJ, Liddle PF, Frith CD, Hirsch SR, Frackowiak RS. The left medial temporal region and schizophrenia: A PET study. Brain 1992; 115: 367–382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith CD, Friston KJ, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS. PET study of word finding. Neuropsychologia 1991; 29: 1137–1148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith CD, Friston KJ, Herold S, Silbersweig D, Fletcher P, Cahill C, et al. Regional brain activity in chronic schizophrenic patients during the performance of a verbal fluency task. British Journal of Psychiatry 1995; 167: 343–349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu CH, Suckling J, Williams SC, Andrew C, Vythelingum GN, McGuire PK. Effects of psychotic state and task demand on prefrontal function in schizophrenia: An fMRI study of overt verbal fluency. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162: 485–494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuster JM. The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe. Raven Press, New York 1980
   Google Scholar
• Ganguli R, Carter CS, Mintun M, Brar J, Becke J, Sarma R, et al. PET brain mapping study of auditory verbal supraspan memory versus visual fixation in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 1997; 41: 33–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glahn DC, Ragland JD, Abramoff A, Barrett J, Laird AR, Bearden CE, et al. Beyond hypofrontality: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia. Human Brain Mapping 2005; 25: 60–69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg TE, Greenberg RD, Griffin SJ, Gold JM, Kleinman JE, Pickar D, et al. The effect of clozapine on cognition and psychiatric symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1993; 162: 43–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman-Rakic PS. Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychology and Clinical Neuroscience 1994; 6: 348–357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman-Rakic PS, Selemon LD, Schwartz ML. Dual pathways connecting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex with the hippocampal formation and parahippocampal cortex in the rhesus monkey. Neuroscience 1984; 12: 719–743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant DA, Berg EA. A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to a new response in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1948; 38: 404–411
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Green MF. What are the functional consequences of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia?. American Journal of Psychiatry 1996; 153: 321–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green MF. Schizophrenia from a neurocognitive perspective: Probing the impenetrable darkenss. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA 1998
   Google Scholar
• Gur RC, Gur RE. Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: RIP. Lancet 1995; 345: 1383–1384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Gur RC, Skolnick BE, Caroff S, Obrist WD, Resnick S, et al. Brain function in psychiatric disorders: III. Regional cerebral blood flow in unmedicated schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 1985; 42: 329–334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RC, Ragland JD, Resnick SM, Jaggi J, Skolnick BE, Gur RE. Lateralized increases in cerebral blood flow during performance of verbal and spatial tasks: Relationship with performance level. Brain and Cognition 1994; 24: 244–258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Resnick SM, Alavi A, Gur RC, Caroff S, Dann R, et al. Regional brain function in schizophrenia: I. A positron emission tomography study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1987a; 44: 119–125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Resnick SM, Gur RC, Alavi A, Caroff S, Kushner M, et al. Regional brain function in schizophrenia: II. Repeated evaluation with positron emission tomography. Archives of General Psychiatry 1987b; 44: 126–129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Skolnick BE, Gur RC, Caroff S, Rieger W, Obrist WD, Younkin D, Reivich M. Brain function in psychiatric disorders: I Regional cerebral blood flow in medicated schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 1983; 40: 1250–1254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrow M, Jobe TH. Longitudinal studies of outcome and recovery in schizophrenia and early intervention: Can they make a difference?. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 50: 879–880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey PD, Keefe RS. Studies of cognitive change in patients with schizophrenia following novel antipsychotic treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 176–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazlet EA, Buchsbaum MS, Jeu LA, Nenadic I, Fleischman MB, Shihabuddin L, et al. Hypofrontality in unmedicated schizophrenia patients studied with PET during performance of a serial verbal learning task. Schizophrenia Research 2000; 43: 33–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckers S, Rauch SL, Goff D, Savage CR, Schacter DL, Fischman AJ, et al. Impaired recruitment of the hippocampus during conscious recollection in schizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience 1998; 1: 318–323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckers S, Weiss AP, Deckersbach T, Goff DC, Morecraft RJ, Bush G. Anterior cingulate cortex activation during cognitive interference in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161: 707–715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holcomb HH, Lahti AC, Medoff DR, Weiler M, Dannals RF, Tamminga CA. Brain activation patterns in schizophrenic and comparison volunteers during a matched-performance auditory recognition task. American Journal of Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1634–1645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honey G, Bullmore E. Human pharmacological MRI. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 2004; 25: 366–374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honey GD, Bullmore ET, Sharma T. De-coupling of cognitive performance and cerebral functional response during working memory in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2002; 53: 45–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honey GD, Bullmore ET, Soni W, Varatheesan M, Williams SC, Sharma T. Differences in frontal cortical activation by a working memory task after substitution of risperidone for typical antipsychotic drugs in patients with schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 1999; 96: 13432–13437
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honey GD, Suckling J, Zelaya F, Long C, Routledge C, Jackson S, et al. Dopaminergic drug effects on physiological connectivity in a human cortico-striato-thalamic system. Brain 2003; 126: 1767–1781
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horwitz B. The elusive concept of brain connectivity. NeuroImage 2003; 19: 466–470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingvar DH, Franzen G. Distribution of cerebral activity in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet 1974; 2: 1484–1486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings JM, McIntosh AR, Kapur S, Zipursky RB, Houle S. Functional network differences in schizophrenia: A rCBF study of semantic processing. NeuroReport 1998; 9: 1697–1700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerns JG, Cohen JD, MacDonald AW, Johnson MK, Stenger VA, Aizenstein H, et al. Decreased conflict- and error-related activity in the anterior cingulate cortex in subjects with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1833–1839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J, Glahn DC, Nuechterlein KH, Cannon TD. Maintenance and manipulation of information in schizophrenia: Further evidence for impairment in the central executive component of working memory. Schizophrenia Research 2004; 68: 173–187
   Google Scholar
• Koshino H, Carpenter PA, Minshew NJ, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Just MA. Functional connectivity in an fMRI working memory task in high-functioning autism. NeuroImage 2005; 24: 810–821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraepelin E, Livingston T. Dementiapraexoc and paraphrenia. T.R.M.Barclay, Edinburgh 1919, 1971
   Google Scholar
• Laurens KR, Kiehl KA, Ngan ETC, Liddle PF. Attention orienting dysfunction during salient novel stimulus processing in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2005; 75: 159–171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrie SM, Buechel C, Whalley HC, Frith CD, Friston KJ, Johnstone EC. Reduced frontotemporal functional connectivity in schizophrenia associated with auditory hallucinations. Biological Psychiatry 2002; 51: 1008–1011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liddle PF. The psychomotor disorder: Disorders of the supervisory mental processes. Behavioral Neurology 1993; 6: 5–14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liddle PF. Dynamic neuroimaging with PET, SPET, or fMRI. International Review of Psychiatry 1997; 9: 331–337
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linden DE. How psychotherapy changes the brain – the contribution of functional neuroimaging. Molecular Psychiatry 2006; 11: 528–538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe MJ, Mock BJ, Sorenson JA. Functionalconnectivity in single and multislice echoplanar imaging using resting-state fluctuations. Neuroimaging 1998; 7: 119–132
   Google Scholar
• Lowe MJ, Phillips MD, Lurito JT, Mattson D, Dzemidzic M, Mathews VP. Multiple sclerosis: Low-frequency temporal blood oxygen level-dependent fluctuations indicate reduced functional connectivity – initial results. Radiology 2002; 224: 184–192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald AW, Carter CS, Kerns JG, Ursu S, Barch DM, Holmes AJ, et al. Specificity of prefrontal dysfunction and context processing deficits to schizophrenia in never-medicated patients with first-episode psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162: 475–484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manoach DS. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: Reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophrenia Research 2003; 60: 285–298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manoach DS, Gollub RL, Benson ES, Searl MM, Goff DC, Halpern E, et al. Schizophrenic subjects show aberrant fMRI activation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia during working memory performance. Biological Psychiatry 2000; 48: 99–109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathew RJ, Wilson WH, Tant SR, Robinson L, Prakash R. Abnormal resting regional cerebral blood flow patterns and their correlates in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988; 45: 542–549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menon V, Levitin DJ. The rewards of music listening: Response and physiological connectivity of the mesolimbic system. NeuroImage 2005; 28: 175–184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer-Lindenberg A, Poline JB, Kohn PD, Holt JL, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, et al. Evidence for abnormal cortical functional connectivity during working memory in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1809–1817
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, Brown T, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, et al. Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2005; 62: 379–386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake A, Shah P. Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge University Press, New York 1999
   Google Scholar
• Nauta WJH. The problem of the frontal lobe: A reinterpretation. Journal of Psychiatry Research 1971; 8: 167–187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nohara S, Suzuki M, Kurachi M, Yamashita I, Matsui M, Seto H, et al. Neural correlates of memory organization deficits in schizophrenia – a single photon emission computed tomography study with 99mTc-ECD during a verbal learning task. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi 2001; 103: 622–629
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park S, Holzman PS. Schizophrenics show spatial working memory deficits. Archives of General Psychiatry 1992; 49: 975–982
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park S, Holzman PS, Goldman-Rakic PS. Spatial working memory deficits in the relatives of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 1995; 52: 821–828
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park S, Puschel J, Sauter BH, Rentsch M, Hell D. Spatial working memory deficits and clinical symptoms in schizophrenia: A 4-month follow-up study. Biological Psychiatry 1999; 46: 392–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park S, Püschel J, Sauter BH, Rentsch M, Hell D. Visual object working memory function and clinical symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2002; 59: 261–268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perlstein WM, Carter CS, Noll DC, Cohen JD. Relation of prefrontal cortex dysfunction to working memory and symptoms in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1105–1113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner MI, Abdullaev YG. What to image? Anatomy, circuity and plasticity of human brain function. Academic Press, New York 1996
   Google Scholar
• Posner MI, DiGirolamo GJ. The attentive brain. Executive attention: Conflict, target detection, and cognitive control, R. Parasuraman. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 1998
   Google Scholar
• Preston AR, Shohamy D, Tamminga CA, Wagner AD. Hippocampal function, declarative memory, and schizophrenia: Anatomic and functional neuroimaging considerations. Current Neurological and Neuroscience Reports 2005; 5: 249–56
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ragland JD, Gur RC, Glahn DC, Censits DM, Smith RJ, Lazarev MG, et al. Fronto-temporal cerebral blood flow change during executive and declarative memory tasks in schizophrenia: A positron emission tomography study. Neuropsychology 1998; 12: 399–413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragland JD, Gur RC, Raz J, Schroeder L, Smith RJ, Alavi A, et al. Effect of schizophrenia on frontotemporal activity during word encoding and recognition: A PET cerebral blood flow study. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1114–1125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragland JD, Gur RC, Valdez J, Turetsky BI, Elliott M, Kohler C, et al. Event-related fMRI of frontotemporal activity during word encoding and recognition in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1004–1015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragland JD, Gur RC, Valdez JN, Loughead J, Elliott M, Kohler C, et al. Levels-of-processing effect on frontotemporal function in schizophrenia during word encoding and recognition. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1840–1848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roffman JL, Marci CD, Glick DM, Dougherty DD, Rauch SL. Neuroimaging and the functional neuroanatomy of psychotherapy. Psychological Medicine 2005; 35: 1385–1398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubia K, Russell T, Bullmore ET, Soni W, Brammer MJ, Simmons A, et al. An fMRI study of reduced left prefrontal activation in schizophrenia during normal inhibitory function. Schizophrenia Research 2001; 52: 47–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shallice T. From neuropsychology to mental structure. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988
   Google Scholar
• Siegle GJ, Carter CS, Thase ME. Use of FMRI to predict recovery from unipolar depression with cognitive behavior therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 163: 735–738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver H, Feldman P, Bilker W, Gur RC. Working memory deficits as a core neuropsychological dysfunction in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003; 160: 1809–1816
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith EE, Jonides J. Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science 1999; 283: 1657–1661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snitz BE, MacDonald AW, Cohen JD, Cho RY, Becker T, Carter CS. Lateral and medial hypofrontality in first-episode schizophrenia: Functional activity in a medication-naive state and effects of short-term atypical antipsychotic treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 162: 2322–2329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence SA, Liddle PF, Stefan MD, Hellewell JS, Sharma T, Friston KJ, et al. Functional anatomy of verbal fluency in people with schizophrenia and those at genetic risk. Focal dysfunction and distributed disconnectivity reappraised. British Journal of Psychiatry 2000; 176: 52–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein EA. fMRI: A new tool for the in vivo localization of drug actions in the brain. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2001; 25: 419–424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Wolf AP, Van Gelder P, Brodie JD, Overall JE, Cancro R, et al. Phenomenological correlates of metabolic activity in 18 patients with chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 144: 151–158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Zec RF. Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I: Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry 1986; 43: 114–125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Illowsky BP. Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia III: A new cohort and evidence from a monoaminergic mechanism. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988; 45: 609–615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Daniel DG. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction in schizophrenia. Frontal lobe function and dysfunction, A. L. Benton, H. M. Eisenberg, H. S. Levin. Oxford University Press, New York 1991
   Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Suddath R, Torrey EF. Evidence of dysfunction of a prefrontal-limbic network in schizophrenia: A magnetic resonance imaging and rCBF flow study of discordant monozygotic twins. American Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 7: 890–897
   Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Berman KF. Prefrontal function in schizophrenia: Confounds and controversies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B 1996; 351: 1495–1503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger DR, Gallhofer B. Cognitive function in schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 1997; 12: S29–36
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss AP, Heckers S. Neuroimaging of declarative memory in schizophrenia. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 2001; 42: 239–250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss AP, Schacter DL, Goff DC, Rauch SL, Alpert NM, Fischman AJ, Heckers S. Impaired hippocampal recruitment during normal modulation of memory performance in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 2003; 53: 48–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf DH, Gur RC, Valdez JN, Loughead J, Elliott M, Gur RE, et al. Alterations of fronto-temporal connectivity during word encoding in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 2007; 154: 221–232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood FB, Flowers L. Hypofrontal versus hypo-sylvian blood flow in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1990; 16: 413–424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yurgelun-Todd DA, Waternaux CM, Cohen BM, Gruber SA, Camper DBA, Renshaw P. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of schizophrenia patients and comparison subjects during word production. American Journal of Psychiatry 1996; 153: 200–205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zarahn E, Aguirre GK, D’Esposito M. A trial-based experimental design for fMRI. NeuroImage 1997; 6: 122–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar