548
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Using molecular imaging to understand early schizophrenia-related psychosis neurochemistry: a review of human studies

, , , , &
Pages 555-566 | Received 22 Sep 2017, Accepted 19 Oct 2017, Published online: 08 Dec 2017

References

  • Abi-Dargham, A. (2014). Schizophrenia: Overview and dopamine dysfunction. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, e31. doi:10.4088/JCP.13078tx2c
  • Addington, J., & Heinssen, R. (2012). Prediction and prevention of psychosis in youth at clinical high risk. Annu Rev Clin Psychol, 8, 269–289. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143146
  • Addington, J., Cadenhead, K.S., Cannon, T.D., Cornblatt, B., McGlashan, T.H., Perkins, D.O., … Heinssen, R. (2007). North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study: A collaborative multisite approach to prodromal schizophrenia research. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, 665–672. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbl075
  • Addington, J., Cornblatt, B.A., Cadenhead, K.S., Cannon, T.D., McGlashan, T.H., Perkins, D.O., … Heinssen, R. (2011). At clinical high risk for psychosis: Outcome for nonconverters. Am J Psychiatry, 168, 800–805. doi:https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10081191
  • Ahamed, M., Attili, B., van Veghel, D., Ooms, M., Berben, P., Celen, S., … Laitinen, J.T. (2017). Synthesis and preclinical evaluation of [11C]MA-PB-1 for in vivo imaging of brain monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 136, 104–113.
  • Ahmad, R., Postnov, A., Bormans, G., Versijpt, J., Vandenbulcke, M., & Van Laere, K. (2016). Decreased in vivo availability of the cannabinoid type 2 receptor in Alzheimer's disease. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 43, 2219–2227. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-016-3457-7
  • Akkus, F., Treyer, V., Ametamey, S.M., Johayem, A., Buck, A., & Hasler, G. (2017). Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 neuroimaging in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 183, 95–101. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.11.008
  • Ametamey, S.M., Treyer, V., Streffer, J., Wyss, M.T., Schmidt, M., Blagoev, M., … Fischer, U.C. (2007). Human PET studies of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 with 11C-ABP688. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 48, (2–247). 252.
  • Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton, R., Murray, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T.E. (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: Longitudinal prospective study. BMJ, 325, 1212–1213. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1212
  • Asai, Y., Ikoma, Y., Takano, A., Maeda, J., Toyama, H., Yasuno, F., … Suhara, T. (2009). Quantitative analyses of [11C]Ro15-4513 binding to subunits of GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor in the living human brain. Nuclear Medicine Communications, 30, 872–880.
  • Asai, Y., Takano, A., Ito, H., Okubo, Y., Matsuura, M., Otsuka, A., … Arakawa, R. (2008). GABAA/Benzodiazepine receptor binding in patients with schizophrenia using [11C] Ro15-4513, a radioligand with relatively high affinity for α5 subunit. Schizophrenia Research, 99, 333–340.
  • Bajjalieh, S.M., Frantz, G.D., Weimann, J.M., McConnell, S.K., & Scheller, R.H. (1994). Differential expression of synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2) isoforms. J. Neurosci, 14, 5223–5235.
  • Barch, D.M., & Ceaser, A. (2012). Cognition in schizophrenia: Core psychological and neural mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 27–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.015
  • Barron, H., Hafizi, S., & Mizrahi, R. (2017). Towards an integrated view of early molecular changes underlying vulnerability to social stress in psychosis. In Neuroprogression in psychiatric disorders (Vol. 31, pp. 96–106). Basel, Switzerland: Karger Publishers.
  • Barron, H., Hafizi, S., Andreazza, A.C., & Mizrahi, R. (2017). Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in psychosis and psychosis risk. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18, 651. doi:10.3390/ijms18030651
  • Bloomfield, P.S., Selvaraj, S., Veronese, M., Rizzo, G., Bertoldo, A., Owen, D.R., … Turkheimer, F. (2015). Microglial activity in people at ultra high risk of psychosis and in schizophrenia: An [11C]PBR28 PET brain imaging study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 44–52.
  • Boileau, I., Tyndale, R.F., Williams, B., Mansouri, E., Westwood, D.J., Le Foll, B., … Tong, J. (2015). The fatty acid amide hydrolase C385A variant affects brain binding of the positron emission tomography tracer [11C]CURB. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 35, 1237–1240. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2015.119
  • Boileau, I., Rusjan, P.M., Williams, B., Mansouri, E., Mizrahi, R., Luca, D. V., … Tong, J. (2015). Blocking of fatty acid amide hydrolase activity with PF-04457845 in human brain: a positron emission tomography study with the novel radioligand [11C]CURB. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 35, 1827–1835. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2015.133
  • Braff, D.L. (2010). Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex: A window on the brain in schizophrenia. In Behavioral neurobiology of schizophrenia and its treatment (pp. 349–371). New York: Springer.
  • Braff, D.L., Geyer, M.A., & Swerdlow, N.R. (2001). Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: Normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 156, 234–258.doi:10.1007/s002130100810
  • Bretin, F., Warnock, G., Bahri, M.A., Aerts, J., Mestdagh, N., Buchanan, T., … Plenevaux, A. (2013). Preclinical radiation dosimetry for the novel SV2A radiotracer [18F]UCB-H. EJNMMI Research, 3, 35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-219X-3-35
  • Bretin, F., Bahri, M.A., Bernard, C., Warnock, G., Aerts, J., Mestdagh, N., … Salmon, E. (2015). Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry for the novel SV2A radiotracer [(18)F]UCB-H: First-in-human study. Molecular Imaging and Biology: MIB, 17, 557–564.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11307-014-0820-6
  • Cannon, T.D., Yu, C., Addington, J., Bearden, C.E., Cadenhead, K.S., Cornblatt, B.A., … McGlashan, T.H. (2016). An individualized risk calculator for research in prodromal psychosis. Am J Psychiatry, 173, 980–988.
  • Cannon, T.D. (2015). How schizophrenia develops: cognitive and brain mechanisms underlying onset of psychosis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19, 744–756.doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.009
  • Ceccarini, J., De Hert, M., Van Winkel, R., Peuskens, J., Bormans, G., Kranaster, L., … Van Laere, K. (2013). Increased ventral striatal CB1 receptor binding is related to negative symptoms in drug-free patients with schizophrenia. Neuroimage, 79, 304–312.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.052
  • Ces, A., Reiss, D., Walter, O., Wichmann, J., Prinssen, E.P., Kieffer, B.L., & Ouagazzal, A.-M. (2012). Activation of nociceptin/orphanin FQ peptide receptors disrupts visual but not auditory sensorimotor gating in BALB/cByJ mice: Comparison to dopamine receptor agonists. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 378. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.175
  • Chiang, K.P., Gerber, A.L., Sipe, J.C., & Cravatt, B.F. (2004). Reduced cellular expression and activity of the P129T mutant of human fatty acid amide hydrolase: evidence for a link between defects in the endocannabinoid system and problem drug use. Hum Mol Genet, 13, 2113–2119.doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddh216
  • Clapper, J.R., Vacondio, F., King, A.R., Duranti, A., Tontini, A., Silva, C., … Piomelli, D. (2009). A second generation of carbamate-based fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitors with improved activity in vivo. ChemMedChem, 4, 1505–1513.doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cmdc.200900210
  • Collste, K., Plavén-Sigray, P., Fatouros-Bergman, H., Victorsson, P., Schain, M., Forsberg, A., … Flyckt, L. (2017). Lower levels of the glial cell marker TSPO in drug-naive first-episode psychosis patients as measured using PET and [11C]PBR28. Molecular Psychiatry, 22, 850–856.
  • Coughlin, J., Wang, Y., Ambinder, E., Ward, R., Minn, I., Vranesic, M., … Hayes, L. (2016). In vivo markers of inflammatory response in recent-onset schizophrenia: A combined study using [11C]DPA-713 PET and analysis of CSF and plasma. Translational Psychiatry, 6, e777.
  • Davis, K.L., & Kahn, R.S. (1991). Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization. Am J Psychiatry, 148, 1474. doi:10.1016/0920-9964(91)90262-P
  • DeLorenzo, C., Gallezot, J.-D., Gardus, J., Yang, J., Planeta, B., Nabulsi, N., … Mann, J.J. (2017). In vivo variation in same-day estimates of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 binding using [11C]ABP688 and [18F]FPEB. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 37, 2716–2727.
  • Di Biase, M.A., Zalesky, A., O'keefe, G., Laskaris, L., Baune, B.T., Weickert, C.S., … Cropley, V. (2017). PET imaging of putative microglial activation in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis, recently diagnosed and chronically ill with schizophrenia. Translational Psychiatry, 7, e1225.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2017.193
  • Di Forti, M., Sallis, H., Allegri, F., Trotta, A., Ferraro, L., Stilo, S.A., … Murray, R.M. (2014). Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40, 1509–1517.doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt181
  • Eastwood, S.L., Burnet, P.W., & Harrison, P.J. (1995). Altered synaptophysin expression as a marker of synaptic pathology in schizophrenia. Neuroscience, 66, 309–319.doi:10.1016/0306-4522(94)00586-T
  • Egbujo, C.N., Sinclair, D., & Hahn, C.G. (2016). Dysregulations of synaptic vesicle trafficking in schizophrenia. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18, 77.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0710-5
  • Finnema, S.J., Nabulsi, N.B., Eid, T., Detyniecki, K., Lin, S.F., Chen, M.K., … Carson, R.E. (2016). Imaging synaptic density in the living human brain. Science Translational Medicine, 8, 348ra396. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf6667
  • Fusar-Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Bechdolf, A., Addington, J., Riecher-Rössler, A., Schultze-Lutter, F., … Seidman, L.J. (2013). The psychosis high-risk state: A comprehensive state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 107–120.
  • Fusar-Poli, P., Bechdolf, A., Taylor, M.J., Bonoldi, I., Carpenter, W.T., Yung, A.R., & McGuire, P. (2013). At risk for schizophrenic or affective psychoses? A meta-analysis of DSM/ICD diagnostic outcomes in individuals at high clinical risk. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39, 923–932.doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs060
  • Glantz, L.A., & Lewis, D.A. (1997). Reduction of synaptophysin immunoreactivity in the prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia. Regional and Diagnostic Specificity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 10–943. 952. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830190088009
  • Hafizi, S., Tseng, H.-H., Rao, N., Selvanathan, T., Kenk, M., Bazinet, R.P., … Remington, G. (2016). Imaging microglial activation in untreated first-episode psychosis: a PET study with [18F]FEPPA. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 118–124.
  • Hafizi, S., Da Silva, T., Gerritsen, C., Kiang, M., Bagby, R., Prce, I., … Mizrahi, R. (in press). Imaging microglial activation in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis: an in-vivo pet study with [18F] FEPPA. Neuropsychopharmacology. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.111
  • Hicks, J.W., Parkes, J., Tong, J., Houle, S., Vasdev, N., & Wilson, A.A. (2014). Radiosynthesis and ex vivo evaluation of [(11)C-carbonyl]carbamate- and urea-based monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitors. Nuclear Medicine and Biology, 41, 688–694.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2014.05.001
  • Higgins, G.A., Kew, J., Richards, J., Takeshima, H., Jenck, F., Adam, G., … Grottick, A. (2002). A combined pharmacological and genetic approach to investigate the role of orphanin FQ in learning and memory. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 911–922.
  • Hirvonen, J., Zanotti-Fregonara, P., Umhau, J.C., George, D.T., Rallis-Frutos, D., Lyoo, C.H., … Heilig, M. (2013). Reduced cannabinoid CB1 receptor binding in alcohol dependence measured with positron emission tomography. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 916–921.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.100
  • Howes, O., McCutcheon, R., & Stone, J. (2015). Glutamate and dopamine in schizophrenia: An update for the 21st century. ournal of Psychopharmacol. (Oxford), 29, 97–115.doi:10.1177/0269881114563634
  • Howes, O.D., McCutcheon, R., Owen, M.J., & Murray, R.M. (2017). The role of genes, stress, and dopamine in the development of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 81, 9–20.doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.07.014
  • Howes, O.D., Bose, S.K., Turkheimer, F., Valli, I., Egerton, A., Valmaggia, L.R., … McGuire, P. (2011). Dopamine synthesis capacity before onset of psychosis: A prospective [18F]-DOPA PET imaging study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1311–1317. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010160
  • Huestis, M.A., Boyd, S.J., Heishman, S.J., Preston, K.L., Bonnet, D., Le Fur, G., & Gorelick, D.A. (2007). Single and multiple doses of rimonabant antagonize acute effects of smoked cannabis in male cannabis users. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 194, 505–515.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0861-5
  • Jones, T., & Rabiner, E.A. & PET Research Advisory Company. (2012). The development, past achievements, and future directions of brain PET. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 32, 1426–1454.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2012.20
  • Kang, J.I., Park, H.-J., Kim, S.J., Kim, K.R., Lee, S.Y., Lee, E., … Lee, J.D. (2013). Reduced binding potential of GABA-A/benzodiazepine receptors in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis: An [18F]-fluoroflumazenil positron emission tomography study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40, 548–557.
  • Katona, I., & Freund, T.F. (2008). Endocannabinoid signaling as a synaptic circuit breaker in neurological disease. Nature Medicine, 14, 923–930.doi:10.1038/nm.f.1869
  • Kessler, R.M., Woodward, N.D., Riccardi, P., Li, R., Ansari, M.S., Anderson, S., … Meltzer, H.Y. (2009). Dopamine D2 receptor levels in striatum, thalamus, substantia nigra, limbic regions, and cortex in schizophrenic subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 1024–1031.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.029
  • Kim, M.-J., Shrestha, S., Eldridge, M., Cortes, M., Singh, P., Liow, J.-S., … Pike, V. (2017). Novel PET radioligands show that, in rhesus monkeys, COX-1 is constitutively expressed and COX-2 is induced by inflammation. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 58(Suppl 1), 203.
  • Klein, P.J., Schuit, R.C., Metaxas, A., Christiaans, J.A., Kooijman, E., Lammertsma, A.A., … Windhorst, A.D. (2017). Synthesis, radiolabeling and preclinical evaluation of a [11C]GMOM derivative as PET radiotracer for the ion channel of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. Nuclear Medicine and Biology, 51, 25–32.
  • Laruelle, M. (2000). Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: A critical review. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 20, 423–451.doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00004647-200003000-00001
  • Leggett, J., Harbuz, M., Jessop, D., & Fulford, A. (2006). The nociceptin receptor antagonist [Nphe1,Arg14,Lys15]nociceptin/orphanin FQ-NH2 blocks the stimulatory effects of nociceptin/orphanin FQ on the HPA axis in rats. Neuroscience, 141, 2051–2057.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.05.036
  • Lehrer, D.S., Christian, B.T., Kirbas, C., Chiang, M., Sidhu, S., Short, H., … Buchsbaum, M.S. (2010). 18F-fallypride binding potential in patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy controls. Schizophrenia Research, 122, 43–52.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.03.043
  • Lewis, D.A., & Moghaddam, B. (2006). Cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia: convergence of γ-aminobutyric acid and glutamate alterations. Archives of Neurology, 63, 1372–1376.
  • Lisman, J.E., Coyle, J.T., Green, R.W., Javitt, D.C., Benes, F.M., Heckers, S., & Grace, A.A. (2008). Circuit-based framework for understanding neurotransmitter and risk gene interactions in schizophrenia. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 234–242.doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.005
  • Lohith, T.G., Zoghbi, S.S., Morse, C.L., Araneta, M.F., Barth, V.N., Goebl, N.A., … Fujita, M. (2012). Brain and whole-body imaging of nociceptin/orphanin FQ peptide receptor in humans using the PET ligand 11C-NOP-1A. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 53, 385–392.
  • Marti, M., Mela, F., Veronesi, C., Guerrini, R., Salvadori, S., Federici, M., … Beani, L. (2004). Blockade of nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor signaling in rat substantia nigra pars reticulata stimulates nigrostriatal dopaminergic transmission and motor behavior. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 6659–6666.
  • Matosin, N., & Newell, K.A. (2013). Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 in the pathology and treatment of schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 256–268.doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.005
  • Maziere, M., Prenant, C., Sastre, J., Crouzel, M., Comar, D., Hantraye, P., … Naquet, R. (1983). Ro15-1788 C-11 and flunitrazepam C-11; two coordinats for the study of benzodiazepines binding sites by positron emission tomography. Comptes Rendus Des Seances De L'Academie Des Sciences. Serie 3, 296, 871–876.
  • McPartland, J.M., Glass, M., & Pertwee, R.G. (2007). Meta-analysis of cannabinoid ligand binding affinity and receptor distribution: Interspecies differences. British Journal of Pharmacology, 152, 583–593.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0707399
  • Meldrum, B.S. (2000). Glutamate as a neurotransmitter in the brain: Review of physiology and pathology. The Journal of Nutrition, 130, 1007S–1015S.
  • Mercier, J., Archen, L., Bollu, V., Carre, S., Evrard, Y., Jnoff, E., … Provins, L. (2014). Discovery of heterocyclic nonacetamide synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A) ligands with single-digit nanomolar potency: Opening avenues towards the first SV2A positron emission tomography (PET) ligands. ChemMedChem, 9, 693–698.doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cmdc.201300482
  • Mitterhauser, M., Wadsak, W., Wabnegger, L., Mien, L.-K., Tögel, S., Langer, O., … Dudczak, R. (2004). Biological evaluation of 2′-[18F] fluoroflumazenil ([18F]FFMZ), a potential GABA receptor ligand for PET. Nuclear Medicine and Biology, 31, 291–295.
  • Mizrahi, R., Rusjan, P.M., Kennedy, J., Pollock, B., Mulsant, B., Suridjan, I., … Houle, S. (2012). Translocator protein (18 kDa) polymorphism (rs6971) explains in-vivo brain binding affinity of the PET radioligand [(18)F]-FEPPA. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 32, 968–972.
  • Mizrahi, R., Kenk, M., Suridjan, I., Boileau, I., George, T.P., McKenzie, K., … Rusjan, P. (2014). Stress-induced dopamine response in subjects at clinical high risk for schizophrenia with and without concurrent cannabis use. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 1479–1489.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2013.347
  • Moldovan, R.-P., Teodoro, R., Gao, Y., Deuther-Conrad, W., Kranz, M., Wang, Y., … Fischer, S. (2016). Development of a high-affinity PET radioligand for imaging cannabinoid subtype 2 receptor. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 59, 7840–7855.
  • Moore, T.H., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., Barnes, T.R., Jones, P.B., Burke, M., & Lewis, G. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. The Lancet, 370, 319–328.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3
  • Myers, J.F., Comley, R.A., & Gunn, R.N. (2017). Quantification of [(11)C]Ro15-4513 GABAAα5 specific binding and regional selectivity in humans. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 37, 2137–2148.
  • Nabulsi, N.B., Mercier, J., Holden, D., Carre, S., Najafzadeh, S., Vandergeten, M.C., … Huang, Y. (2016). Synthesis and preclinical evaluation of 11C-UCB-J as a PET tracer for imaging the synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A in the brain. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 57, 777–784.doi:https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.115.168179
  • Narendran, R., Frankle, W.G., Mason, N.S., Rabiner, E.A., Gunn, R.N., Searle, G.E., … Laruelle, M. (2009). Positron emission tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in the human cortex: A comparative evaluation of the high affinity dopamine D2/3 radiotracers [11C]FLB 457 and [11C]fallypride. Synapse, 63, 447–461.
  • Narendran, R., Jedema, H.P., Lopresti, B.J., Mason, N.S., Gurnsey, K., Ruszkiewicz, J., … Bradberry, C.W. (2014). Imaging dopamine transmission in the frontal cortex: A simultaneous microdiaysis and [11C]FLB 457 PET study. Molecular Psychiatry, 19, 302.
  • Nicol, B., Lambert, D.G., Rowbotham, D.J., Smart, D., & McKnight, A.T. (1996). Nociceptin induced inhibition of K + evoked glutamate release from rat cerebrocortical slices. British Journal of Pharmacology, 119, 1081–1083.doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1996.tb16007.x
  • Normandin, M.D., Zheng, M.Q., Lin, K.S., Mason, N.S., Lin, S.F., Ropchan, J., … Huang, Y. (2015). Imaging the cannabinoid CB1 receptor in humans with [11C]OMAR: Assessment of kinetic analysis methods, test-retest reproducibility, and gender differences. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 35, 1313–1322.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2015.46
  • Notter, T., Coughlin, J., Gschwind, T., Weber-Stadlbauer, U., Wang, Y., Kassiou, M., … Sawa, A. (in press). Translational evaluation of translocator protein as a marker of neuroinflammation in schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry. doi:10.1038/mp.2016.248
  • Owen, D.R., Narayan, N., Wells, L., Healy, L., Smyth, E., Rabiner, E.A., … Mandhair, H. (2017). Pro-inflammatory activation of primary microglia and macrophages increases 18 kDa translocator protein expression in rodents but not humans. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 37, 2679–2690. doi:10.1177/0271678X17710182
  • Owen, D.R., Yeo, A.J., Gunn, R.N., Song, K., Wadsworth, G., Lewis, A., … Parker, C.A. (2012). An 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO) polymorphism explains differences in binding affinity of the PET radioligand PBR28. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 32, 1–5.
  • Pantelis, C., Velakoulis, D., McGorry, P.D., Wood, S.J., Suckling, J., Phillips, L.J., … McGuire, P.K. (2003). Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: A cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet, 361, 281–288. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12323-9
  • Ranganathan, M., Cortes-Briones, J., Radhakrishnan, R., Thurnauer, H., Planeta, B., Skosnik, P., … D'souza, D.C. (2016). Reduced brain cannabinoid receptor availability in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 79, 997–1005.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.021
  • Rusjan, P.M., Wilson, A.A., Mizrahi, R., Boileau, I., Chavez, S.E., Lobaugh, N.J., … Tong, J. (2013). Mapping human brain fatty acid amide hydrolase activity with PET. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow Metabolisam, 33, 407–414.doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2012.180
  • Rutten, K., De Vry, J., Bruckmann, W., & Tzschentke, T.M. (2010). Effects of the NOP receptor agonist Ro65-6570 on the acquisition of opiate-and psychostimulant-induced conditioned place preference in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology, 645, 119–126.doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.07.036
  • Saccomanni, G., Pascali, G., Carlo, S.D., Panetta, D., De Simone, M., Bertini, S., … Salvadori, P.A. (2015). Design, synthesis and preliminary evaluation of (18)F-labelled 1,8-naphthyridin- and quinolin-2-one-3-carboxamide derivatives for PET imaging of CB2 cannabinoid receptor. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 25, 2532–2535.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.04.055
  • Saito, A., Ballinger, M.D., Pletnikov, M.V., Wong, D.F., & Kamiya, A. (2013). Endocannabinoid system: Potential novel targets for treatment of schizophrenia. Neurobiology of Disease, 53, 10–17.doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2012.11.020
  • Salavati, B., Rajji, T.K., Price, R., Sun, Y., Graff-Guerrero, A., & Daskalakis, Z.J. (2014). Imaging-based neurochemistry in schizophrenia: A systematic review and implications for dysfunctional long-term potentiation. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, 44–56.doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu132
  • Sanabria-Bohorquez, S.M., Hamill, T.G., Goffin, K., De Lepeleire, I., Bormans, G., Burns, H.D., & Van Laere, K. (2010). Kinetic analysis of the cannabinoid-1 receptor PET tracer [(18)F]MK-9470 in human brain. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 37, 920–933.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-009-1340-5
  • Schultze-Lutter, F., Schimmelmann, B.G., Ruhrmann, S., & Michel, C. (2013). ‘A rose is a rose is a rose’, but at-risk criteria differ. Psychopathology, 46, 75–87.
  • Seeman, M.V., & Seeman, P. (2014). Is schizophrenia a dopamine supersensitivity psychotic reaction? Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 48, 155–160.doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.10.003
  • Selemon, L.D., & Zecevic, N. (2015). Schizophrenia: A tale of two critical periods for prefrontal cortical development. Translational Psychiatry, 5, e623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2015.115
  • Sieghart, W., & Sperk, G. (2002). Subunit composition, distribution and function of GABA-A receptor subtypes. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 2, 795–816.doi:10.2174/1568026023393507
  • Slifstein, M., van de Giessen, E., Van Snellenberg, J., Thompson, J.L., Narendran, R., Gil, R., … Abi-Dargham, A. (2015). Deficits in prefrontal cortical and extrastriatal dopamine release in schizophrenia: A positron emission tomographic functional magnetic resonance imaging study. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 316–324.doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2414
  • Strauss, G.P., Waltz, J.A., & Gold, J.M. (2014). A review of reward processing and motivational impairment in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(Suppl 2), S107–S116.doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt197
  • Suhara, T., Okubo, Y., Yasuno, F., Sudo, Y., Inoue, M., Ichimiya, T., … Farde, L. (2002). Decreased dopamine D2 receptor binding in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 25–30.
  • Talvik, M., Nordstrom, A.L., Olsson, H., Halldin, C., & Farde, L. (2003). Decreased thalamic D2/D3 receptor binding in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia: A PET study with [11C]FLB 457. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 6, 361–370.doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145703003699
  • Terry, G.E., Liow, J.-S., Zoghbi, S.S., Hirvonen, J., Farris, A.G., Lerner, A., … Felder, C.C. (2009). Quantitation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors in healthy human brain using positron emission tomography and an inverse agonist radioligand. Neuroimage, 48, 362–370.
  • Van Berckel, B.N., Bossong, M.G., Boellaard, R., Kloet, R., Schuitemaker, A., Caspers, E., … Lammertsma, A.A. (2008). Microglia activation in recent-onset schizophrenia: A quantitative (R)-[11C]PK11195 positron emission tomography study. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 820–822.
  • Van Der Doef, T.F., De Witte, L.D., Sutterland, A.L., Jobse, E., Yaqub, M., Boellaard, R., … Kahn, R.S. (2016). In vivo (R)-[(11)C]PK11195 PET imaging of 18kDa translocator protein in recent onset psychosis. NPJ Schizophrenia, 2, 16031.
  • Vyas, N.S., Buchsbaum, M.S., Lehrer, D.S., Merrill, B.M., DeCastro, A., Doninger, N.A., … Mukherjee, J. (in press). D2/D3 dopamine receptor binding with [F-18]fallypride correlates of executive function in medication-naive patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.05.017
  • Walker, E., Mittal, V., & Tessner, K. (2008). Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 189–216.doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141248
  • Wang, C., Placzek, M.S., Van de Bittner, G.C., Schroeder, F.A., & Hooker, J.M. (2016). A novel radiotracer for imaging monoacylglycerol lipase in the brain using positron emission tomography. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 7, 484–489.doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00293
  • Warnock, G.I., Aerts, J., Bahri, M.A., Bretin, F., Lemaire, C., Giacomelli, F., … Plenevaux, A. (2014). Evaluation of 18F-UCB-H as a novel PET tracer for synaptic vesicle protein 2A in the brain. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 55, 1336–1341.doi:https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.113.136143
  • Weinstein, J.J., Chohan, M.O., Slifstein, M., Kegeles, L.S., Moore, H., & Abi-Dargham, A. (2017). Pathway-specific dopamine abnormalities in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 81, 31–42.doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.03.2104
  • Wilson, A.A., Garcia, A., Parkes, J., Houle, S., Tong, J., & Vasdev, N. (2011). [11C]CURB: Evaluation of a novel radiotracer for imaging fatty acid amide hydrolase by positron emission tomography. Nuclear Medicine and Biology, 38, 247–253.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2010.08.001
  • Wong, D.F., Kuwabara, H., Horti, A.G., Raymont, V., Brasic, J., Guevara, M., … Cascella, N. (2010). Quantification of cerebral cannabinoid receptors subtype 1 (CB1) in healthy subjects and schizophrenia by the novel PET radioligand [11C]OMAR. Neuroimage, 52, 1505–1513.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.04.034
  • Yasuno, F., Suhara, T., Okubo, Y., Ichimiya, T., Takano, A., Sudo, Y., & Inoue, M. (2005). Abnormal effective connectivity of dopamine D2 receptor binding in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 138, 197–207.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2004.04.005
  • Yung, A.R., & McGorry, P.D. (1996). The initial prodrome in psychosis: descriptive and qualitative aspects. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 587–599.doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679609062654
  • Zheng, M.-Q., Holden, D., Nabulsi, N., Lin, S-F., Mercier, J., Hannestad, J., … Huang, Y. (2014). Synthesis and evaluation of 18F-UCB-H, a novel PET imaging tracer for the synaptic vesicle protein 2A. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 55(Suppl 1), 1792.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.