Cannabis use among U.S. adolescents in the era of marijuana legalization: a review of changing use patterns, comorbidity, and health correlates

References

• ACLU (2019). Marijuana Law Reform. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved from https://www.aclu.org/issues/criminacl-law-reform/drug-law-reform/marijuana-law-reform?redirect=criminal-law-reform/marijuana-law-reform
   Google Scholar
• Agrawal, A., Nelson, E. C., Bucholz, K. K., Tillman, R., Grucza, R. A., Statham, D. J., … Lynskey, M. T. (2017). Major depressive disorder, suicidal thoughts and behaviours, and cannabis involvement in discordant twins: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(9), 706–714. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30280-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alderson, H. L., Semple, D. M., Blayney, C., Queirazza, F., Chekuri, V., & Lawrie, S. M. (2017). Risk of transition to schizophrenia following first admission with substance-induced psychotic disorder: A population-based longitudinal cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 47(14), 2548–2555. doi:10.1017/S0033291717001118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ammerman, S., Ryan, S., Adelman, W. P., Committee on Substance Abuse, & the Committee on Adolescence, (2015). The impact of marijuana policies on youth: Clinical, research, and legal update. PEDIATRICS, 135(3), e769–e785. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-4147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomfield, M. A. P., Hindocha, C., Green, S. F., Wall, M. B., Lees, R., Petrilli, K., … Freeman, T. P. (2019). The neuropsychopharmacology of cannabis: A review of human imaging studies. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 195, 132–161. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.10.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borodovsky, J. T., Lee, D. C., Crosier, B. S., Gabrielli, J. L., Sargent, J. D., & Budney, A. J. (2017). U.S. cannabis legalization and use of vaping and edible products among youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 177, 299–306. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.02.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, C. J., Veliz, P. T., & McCabe, S. E. (2015). Adolescents' Use of Medical Marijuana: A Secondary Analysis of Monitoring the Future Data. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(2), 241–244. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner, J. D., Heimberg, R. G., Schneier, F. R., Liu, S. M., Wang, S., & Blanco, C. (2012). The relationship between cannabis use disorders and social anxiety disorder in the National Epidemiological Study of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 124(1-2), 128–134. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner, J. D., Schmidt, N. B., Lang, A. R., Small, J. W., Schlauch, R. C., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2008). Specificity of social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol and cannabis dependence. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(3), 230–239. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner, J. D., Zvolensky, M. J., Ecker, A. H., Jeffries, E. R., Lemke, A. W., Dean, K. E., … Gallagher, M. W. (2017). Anxiety and cannabis-related problem severity among dually diagnosed outpatients: The impact of false safety behaviors. Addictive Behaviors, 70, 49–53. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.02.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CDC (2019). Outbreak of Lung Illness Associated with Using E-cigarette Products. Investigation Notice. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/severe-lung-disease.html
   Google Scholar
• Cerda, M., Wall, M., Keyes, K. M., Galea, S., & Hasin, D. (2012). Medical marijuana laws in 50 states: Investigating the relationship between state legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse and dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 120(1-3), 22–27. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Lynskey, M., Li, N., & Patton, G. C. (2003). Adolescent precursors of cannabis dependence: Findings from the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182(4), 330–336. doi:10.1192/bjp.182.4.330
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coffey, C., & Patton, G. C. (2016). Cannabis use in adolescence and young adulthood: A review of findings from the Victorian adolescent health cohort study. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(6), 318–327. doi:10.1177/0706743716645289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Committee on Substance Abuse, & Committee on Adolescence. (2015). The impact of marijuana policies on youth: Clinical, research, and legal update. Pediatrics, 135(3), 584–587. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-4146
   Google Scholar
• Cornelius, J. R., Kirisci, L., Reynolds, M., Clark, D. B., Hayes, J., & Tarter, R. (2010). PTSD contributes to teen and young adult cannabis use disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 91–94. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.09.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'souza, D. C., Radhakrishnan, R., Sherif, M., Cortes-Briones, J., Cahill, J., Gupta, S., … M, R. (2016). Cannabinoids and Psychosis. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 22(42), 6380–6391. doi:10.2174/1381612822666160826105628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DAG (2013). Memorandum for All United States Attorneys: Guidance Regarding Marijuana Enforcement. Office of the Deputy Attorney General Retrieved from https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1022196/download
   Google Scholar
• DAG (2018). Memorandum for All United States Attorneys: Marijuana Enforcement. Office of the Deputy Attorney General Retrieved from https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1022196/download
   Google Scholar
• Davis, J. M., Mendelson, B., Berkes, J. J., Suleta, K., Corsi, K. F., & Booth, R. E. (2016). Public Health Effects of Medical Marijuana Legalization in Colorado. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(3), 373–379. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.06.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEA (2019). U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency. Drug Scheduling. Retrieved from https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling
   Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Coffey, C., Romaniuk, H., Swift, W., Carlin, J. B., Hall, W. D., & Patton, G. C. (2013). The persistence of the association between adolescent cannabis use and common mental disorders into young adulthood. Addiction, 108(1), 124–133. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04015.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Hall, W., & Lynskey, M. (2003). Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression. Addiction, 98(11), 1493–1504. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00437.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Forti, M., Sallis, H., Allegri, F., Trotta, A., Ferraro, L., Stilo, S. A., … Murray, R. M. (2014). Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(6), 1509–1517. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Dawes, M. A., Furr, R. M., Charles, N. E., Liguori, A., … Acheson, A. (2013). Impulsivity, attention, memory, and decision-making among adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 226(2), 307–319. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2908-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutra, L. M., Parish, W. J., Gourdet, C. K., Wylie, S. A., & Wiley, J. L. (2018). Medical cannabis legalization and state-level prevalence of serious mental illness in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) 2008-2015. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(3), 203–215. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1467385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly, M. A., Mehmedic, Z., Foster, S., Gon, C., Chandra, S., & Church, J. C. (2016). Changes in Cannabis Potency Over the Last 2 Decades (1995-2014): Analysis of Current Data in the United States. Biological Psychiatry, 79(7), 613–619. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2015). Psychosocial sequelae of cannabis use and implications for policy: Findings from the Christchurch Health and Development Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(9), 1317–1326. doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1070-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (1997). Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Addiction, 92(3), 279–296. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03198.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Findlaw (2019). Marijuana Legalization and Decriminalization Overview Retrieved from https://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-charges/marijuana-legalization-and-decriminalization-overview.html
   Google Scholar
• Firth, C. L., Maher, J. E., Dilley, J. A., Darnell, A., & Lovrich, N. P. (2019). Did marijuana legalization in Washington State reduce racial disparities in adult marijuana arrests? Substance Use & Misuse, 54, 1582–1587. doi:10.1080/10826084.2019.1593007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., Almeida, P. P., Jungerman, F., Laranjeira, R. R., … Lacerda, A. L. T. (2011). Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning. British Journal of Psychiatry, 198(6), 442–447. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridberg, D. J., Vollmer, J. M., O'Donnell, B. F., & Skosnik, P. D. (2011). Cannabis users differ from non-users on measures of personality and schizotypy. Psychiatry Research, 186(1), 46–52. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobbi, G., Atkin, T., Zytynski, T., Wang, S., Askari, S., Boruff, J., … Mayo, N. (2019). Association of Cannabis Use in Adolescence and Risk of Depression, Anxiety, and Suicidality in Young Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(4), 426–434. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorey, C., Kuhns, L., Smaragdi, E., Kroon, E., & Cousijn, J. (2019). Age-related differences in the impact of cannabis use on the brain and cognition: A systematic review. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 269(1), 37–58. doi:10.1007/s00406-019-00981-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Governing (2019). State Marijuana Laws in 2019 Map. Governing. Retrieved from https://www.governing.com/gov-data/safety-justice/state-marijuana-laws-map-medical-recreational.html
   Google Scholar
• Gruber, S. A., Sagar, K. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Racine, M., & Lukas, S. E. (2012). Age of onset of marijuana use and executive function. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(3), 496–506. doi:10.1037/a0026269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, K. E., Monte, A. A., Chang, T., Fox, J., Brevik, C., Vigil, D. I., … James, K. A. (2018). Mental health-related emergency department visits associated with Cannabis in Colorado. Academic Emergency Medicine, 25(5), 526–537. doi:10.1111/acem.13393
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, W., & Degenhardt, L. (2008). Cannabis use and the risk of developing a psychotic disorder. World Psychiatry, 7(2), 68–71. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2008.tb00158.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, W., & Degenhardt, L. (2015). High potency cannabis. BMJ, 350(mar04 4), h1205–h1205. doi:10.1136/bmj.h1205
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall, W., & Lynskey, M. (2016). Evaluating the public health impacts of legalizing recreational cannabis use in the United States. Addiction, 111(10), 1764–1773. doi:10.1111/add.13428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, K. L., Winward, J. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Medina, K. L., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors, 35(11), 970–976. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harpin, S. B., Brooks-Russell, A., Ma, M., James, K. A., & Levinson, A. H. (2018). Adolescent marijuana use and perceived ease of access before and after recreational marijuana implementation in Colorado. Substance Use & Misuse, 53(3), 451–456. doi:10.1080/10826084.2017.1334069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasin, D. S., Sarvet, A. L., Cerda, M., Keyes, K. M., Stohl, M., Galea, S., & Wall, M. M. (2017). US adult illicit cannabis use, cannabis use disorder, and medical marijuana laws: 1991-1992 to 2012-2013. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(6), 579–588. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0724
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopfer, C. (2014). Implications of marijuana legalization for adolescent substance use. Substance Abuse, 35(4), 331–335. doi:10.1080/08897077.2014.943386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horwood, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., Coffey, C., Patton, G. C., Tait, R., Smart, D., … Hutchinson, D. M. (2012). Cannabis and depression: An integrative data analysis of four Australasian cohorts. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 126(3), 369–378. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hser, Y.-I., Mooney, L. J., Huang, D., Zhu, Y., Tomko, R. L., McClure, E., … Gray, K. M. (2017). Reductions in cannabis use are associated with improvements in anxiety, depression, and sleep quality, but not quality of life. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 81, 53–58. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunault, C. C., Mensinga, T. T., Böcker, K. B. E., Schipper, C. M. A., Kruidenier, M., Leenders, M. E. C., … Meulenbelt, J. (2009). Cognitive and psychomotor effects in males after smoking a combination of tobacco and cannabis containing up to 69 mg delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Psychopharmacology, 204(1), 85–94. doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1440-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyman, S. M., & Sinha, R. (2009). Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: Implications for prevention and treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 36(4), 400–413. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, N. J., Isen, J. D., Khoddam, R., Irons, D., Tuvblad, C., Iacono, W. G., … Baker, L. A. (2016). Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: Results from two longitudinal twin studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(5), E500–E508. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516648113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Bava, S., Cohen-Zion, M., Mahmood, O., & Tapert, S. F. (2009). Functional consequences of marijuana use in adolescents. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 92(4), 559–565. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Escobar, S., McKenna, B. M., Hernandez, M. M., Bagot, K. S., … Huestis, M. A. (2017). Changes in marijuana use symptoms and emotional functioning over 28-days of monitored abstinence in adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 234(23-24), 3431–3442. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4725-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe, S. L., & Klein, M. (2010). Medical marijuana and adolescent treatment. The American Journal on Addictions, 19(5), 460–461. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00063.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jernigan, T. L., & Brown, S. A, & ABCD Consortium Coordinators. (2018). Introduction. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 32, 1–3. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Patrick, M. E. (2018). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2017: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use.
   Google Scholar
• Kaminer, Y. (2017). The denial of the association between youth cannabis and opiate use: A “Split Brain Syndrome”? Substance Abuse, 38(4), 367–368. doi:10.1080/08897077.2017.1380456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kedzior, K. K., & Laeber, L. T. (2014). A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population–a meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 136. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-14-136
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keyes, K. M., Wall, M., Cerdá, M., Schulenberg, J., O'Malley, P. M., Galea, S., … Hasin, D. S. (2016). How does state marijuana policy affect US youth? Medical marijuana laws, marijuana use and perceived harmfulness: 1991-2014. Addiction, 111(12), 2187–2195. doi:10.1111/add.13523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowitt, S. D., Osman, A., Meernik, C., Zarkin, G. A., Ranney, L. M., Martin, J., … Goldstein, A. O. (2019). Vaping cannabis among adolescents: Prevalence and associations with tobacco use from a cross-sectional study in the USA. BMJ Open, 9(6), e028535. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-028535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J. Y., Brook, J. S., Finch, S. J., & Brook, D. W. (2018). Trajectories of cannabis use beginning in adolescence associated with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in the mid-thirties. Substance Abuse, 39(1), 39–45. doi:10.1080/08897077.2017.1363121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lev-Ran, S., Roerecke, M., Le Foll, B., George, T. P., McKenzie, K., & Rehm, J. (2014). The association between cannabis use and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 44(4), 797–810. doi:10.1017/S0033291713001438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, A., Clemenza, K., Rynn, M., & Lieberman, J. (2017). Evidence for the Risks and Consequences of Adolescent Cannabis Exposure. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(3), 214–225. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lisdahl, K. M., Wright, N. E., Kirchner-Medina, C., Maple, K. E., & Shollenbarger, S. (2014). The effects of regular cannabis use on neurocognition in adolescents and young adults. Current Addiction Reports, 1(2), 144–156. doi:10.1007/s40429-014-0019-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyon, M. J., Bar, J. L., & Panizzon, M. S. (2004). Neuropsychological consequences of regular marijuana use: A twin study. Psychological Medicine, 34, 1239–1250. doi:10.1017/S0033291704002260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarty, D. (2018). Does medical cannabis reduce use of prescription opioids? American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 6–7. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17090958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, K. L., Hanson, K. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Cohen-Zion, M., Nagel, B. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: Subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 13(5), 807–820. doi:10.1017/S1355617707071032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S. E., … Moffitt, T. E. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(40), E2657–2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michigan, U. o. (2018). National study shows marijuana use among U.S. college students remains at highest level in three decades; Heavy marijuana use rising among youth not in college. [Press release]. Retrieved from https://isr.umich.edu/news-events/news-releases/national-study-shows-marijuana-use-among-u-s-college-students-remains-at-highest-level-in-three-decades-heavy-marijuana-use-rising-among-youth-not-in-college/
   Google Scholar
• Miech, R., Johnston, L., & O’Malley, P. M. (2017). Prevalence and attitudes regarding marijuana use among adolescents over the past decade. Pediatrics, 140(6), e20170982. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-0982
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, R., Ream, G., McCormack, J., Gunduz-Bruce, H., Sevy, S., & Robinson, D. (2009). A prospective study of cannabis use as a risk factor for non-adherence and treatment dropout in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 113(2-3), 138–144. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.04.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, T. (2019). July 18, 2019). State health officials in colorado preparing for more medical marijuana access. WestWorld. Retrieved from https://www.westword.com/marijuana/colorado-health-officials-preparing-for-more-medical-marijuana-access-11414656
   Google Scholar
• Moitra, E., Anderson, B. J., & Stein, M. D. (2016). Reductions in cannabis use are associated with mood improvement in female emerging adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 332–338. doi:10.1002/da.22460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokrysz, C., Landy, R., Gage, S. H., Munafò, M. R., Roiser, J. P., & Curran, H. V. (2016). Are IQ and educational outcomes in teenagers related to their cannabis use? A prospective cohort study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 159–168. doi:10.1177/0269881115622241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, T. H., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., Barnes, T. R., Jones, P. B., Burke, M., & Lewis, G. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. The Lancet, 370(9584), 319–328. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NCCIH (2018). Marijuana and Cannabinoids Retrieved from https://nccih.nih.gov/health/marijuana
   Google Scholar
• NCSL (2019). Marijuana Overview. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/marijuana-overview.aspx
   Google Scholar
• NIDA (2019). Marijuana as Medicine. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana-medicine
   Google Scholar
• Nocon, A., Wittchen, H. U., Pfister, H., Zimmermann, P., & Lieb, R. (2006). Dependence symptoms in young cannabis users? A prospective epidemiological study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(5), 394–403. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olfson, M., Wall, M. M., Liu, S. M., & Blanco, C. (2018). Cannabis use and risk of prescription opioid use disorder in the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 47–53. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17040413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacula, R. L., & Smart, R. (2017). Medical marijuana and marijuana legalization. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13(1), 397–419. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Sawyer, S. M., & Lynskey, M. (2005). Reverse gateways? Frequent cannabis use as a predictor of tobacco initiation and nicotine dependence. Addiction, 100(10), 1518–1525. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01220.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, E. N., Bae, D., Barrington-Trimis, J. L., Jarvis, B. P., & Leventhal, A. M. (2018). Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Adolescent Use and Polyuse of Combustible, Vaporized, and Edible Cannabis Products. JAMA Network Open, 1(5), e182765. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.2765
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pistis, M., Perra, S., Pillolla, G., Melis, M., Muntoni, A. L., & Gessa, G. L. (2004). Adolescent exposure to cannabinoids induces long-lasting changes in the response to drugs of abuse of rat midbrain dopamine neurons. Biological Psychiatry, 56(2), 86–94. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.05.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M. A., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: What is the nature of the association? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69(3), 303–310. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00334-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renard, J., Rosen, L. G., Loureiro, M., De Oliveira, C., Schmid, S., Rushlow, W. J., & Laviolette, S. R. (2016). Adolescent cannabinoid exposure induces a persistent sub-cortical hyper-dopaminergic state and associated molecular adaptations in the prefrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex, 27, 1297–1310 doi:10.1093/cercor/bhv335
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagar, K. A., & Gruber, S. A. (2018). Marijuana matters: Reviewing the impact of marijuana on cognition, brain structure and function, & exploring policy implications and barriers to research. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(3), 251–267. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1460334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahlem, G. L., Tomko, R. L., Sherman, B. J., Gray, K. M., & McRae-Clark, A. L. (2018). Impact of cannabis legalization on treatment and research priorities for cannabis use disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(3), 216–225. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1465398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salomonsen-Sautel, S., Sakai, J. T., Thurstone, C., Corley, R., & Hopfer, C. (2012). Medical marijuana use among adolescents in substance abuse treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(7), 694–702. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.04.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2017). Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): 2005-2015. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services. BHSIS Series S-91, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 17-5037. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
   Google Scholar
• SAMHSA (2018). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044, NSDUH Series H-52). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
   Google Scholar
• SAMHSA (2019). Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): 2017. Admissions to and Discharges from Publicly-Funded Substance Use Treatment. Retrieved from Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
   Google Scholar
• Schier, J., Meiman, J., & Layden, J. (2019). Severe pulmonary disease associated with electronic-cigarette–product use — interim guidance. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 68, 787–790. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6836e2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoeler, T., Petros, N., Di Forti, M., Pingault, J.-B., Klamerus, E., Foglia, E., … Bhattacharyya, S. (2016). Association between continued cannabis use and risk of relapse in first-episode psychosis: A Quasi-experimental investigation within an observational study. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(11), 1173–1179. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.2427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholes-Balog, K. E., Hemphill, S. A., Evans-Whipp, T. J., Toumbourou, J. W., & Patton, G. C. (2016). Developmental trajectories of adolescent cannabis use and their relationship to young adult social and behavioural adjustment: A longitudinal study of Australian youth. Addictive Behaviors, 53, 11–18. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulenberg, J., Johnston, L., O'Malley, P., Bachman, J., Miech, R., & Patrick, M. (2018). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2017: Volume 2, College students and adults ages 19-55. Ann Arbor, MI.
   Google Scholar
• Sevigny, E. L. (2018). The effects of medical marijuana laws on cannabis-involved driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 118, 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2018.05.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silins, E., Horwood, L. J., Patton, G. C., Fergusson, D. M., Olsson, C. A., Hutchinson, D. M., … Mattick, R. P. (2014). Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: An integrative analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(4), 286–293. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70307-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silins, E., Swift, W., Slade, T., Toson, B., Rodgers, B., & Hutchinson, D. M. (2017). A prospective study of the substance use and mental health outcomes of young adult former and current cannabis users. Drug and Alcohol Review, 36(5), 618–625. doi:10.1111/dar.12512
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swift, W., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., & Patton, G. C. (2008). Adolescent cannabis users at 24 years: Trajectories to regular weekly use and dependence in young adulthood. Addiction, 103(8), 1361–1370. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02246.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swift, W., Coffey, C., Degenhardt, L., Carlin, J. B., Romaniuk, H., & Patton, G. C. (2012). Cannabis and progression to other substance use in young adults: Findings from a 13-year prospective population-based study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 66(7), e26–e26. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.129056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tait, R. J., Mackinnon, A., & Christensen, H. (2011). Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8-year trajectory in a young adult cohort. Addiction, 106(12), 2195–2203. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03574.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tefft, B. C., Arnold, L. S., & Grabowski, J. G. (2016). Prevalence of marijuana involvement in fatal crashes: Washington, 2010 – 2014. Retrieved from Washington, DC: https://aaafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PrevalenceOfMarijuanaInvolvement.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Tucker, J. S., Rodriguez, A., Pedersen, E. R., Seelam, R., Shih, R. A., & D’Amico, E. J. (2019). Greater risk for frequent marijuana use and problems among young adult marijuana users with a medical marijuana card. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 194, 178–183. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandrey, R. (2018). The cannabis conundrum: Steering policy and medicine with insufficient data. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(3), 181–182. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1491107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandrey, R., Raber, J. C., Raber, M. E., Douglass, B., Miller, C., & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2015). Cannabinoid dose and label accuracy in edible medical cannabis products. JAMA, 313(24), 2491–2493. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow, N. D., Swanson, J. M., Evins, A. E., DeLisi, L. E., Meier, M. H., Gonzalez, R., … Baler, R. (2016). Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: a review. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(3), 292–297. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.3278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, G. S. (2017). Pediatric concerns due to expanded cannabis use: Unintended consequences of legalization. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 13, 99–105. doi:10.1007/s13181-016-0552-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiting, P. F., Wolff, R. F., Deshpande, S., Di Nisio, M., Duffy, S., Hernandez, A. V., … Kleijnen, J. (2015). Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 313(24), 2456–2473. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO (2019). The health and social effects of nonmedical cannabis use. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/cannabis_report/en/
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, S. T., Radhakrishnan, R., & D’Souza, D. C. (2014). Impact of cannabis use on the development of psychotic disorders. Current Addiction Reports, 1(2), 115–128. doi:10.1007/s40429-014-0018-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Windle, M., & Wiesner, M. (2004). Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: Predictors and outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1007–1027. doi:10.1017/s0954579404040118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z., Zheng, X., Zeng, D. D., & Leischow, S. J. (2016). Tracking dabbing using search query surveillance: a case study in the United States. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 18(9), e252. doi:10.2196/jmir.5802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zvolensky, M. J., Bernstein, A., Sachs-Ericsson, N., Schmidt, N. B., Buckner, J. D., & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2006). Lifetime associations between cannabis, use, abuse, and dependence and panic attacks in a representative sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(6), 477–486. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.09.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zvolensky, M. J., Lewinsohn, P., Bernstein, A., Schmidt, N. B., Buckner, J. D., Seeley, J., & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2008). Prospective associations between cannabis use, abuse, and dependence and panic attacks and disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(12), 1017–1023. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.10.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar