276
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Self-compassion, mental health shame and work motivation in German and Japanese employees

, ORCID Icon &
Pages 113-124 | Received 03 Oct 2022, Accepted 14 Nov 2022, Published online: 22 Nov 2022

References

  • Abdin, E., Chong, S. A., Vaingankar, J. A., Shafie, S., Verma, S., Luo, N., Tan, K. B., James, L., Heng, D., & Subramaniam, M. (2020). Impact of mental disorders and chronic physical conditions on quality-adjusted life years in Singapore. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59604-0
  • Amagasa, T., Nakayama, T., & Takahashi, Y. (2005). Karojisatsu in Japan: Characteristics of 22 cases of work-related suicide. Journal of Occupational Health, 47(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1539/JOH.47.157
  • Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176
  • Armbruster, S. & Klotzbücher, V. (2020). “Lost in lockdown? COVID-19, social distancing, and mental health in Germany,” Discussion Paper Series 2020-04, University of Freiburg, Wilfried Guth Endowed Chair for Constitutional Political Economy and Competition Policy.
  • Badura, B., Ducki, A., Schröder, H., Klose, J., Meyer, M. (Eds). Fehlzeiten-Report 2016. Fehlzeiten-Report, vol 2016. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-49413-4_1
  • Baker, S. R. (2004). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational orientations: Their role in university adjustment, stress, well-being, and subsequent academic performance. Current Psychology, 23(3), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-004-1019-9
  • Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics, 11(2), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(87)90192-5
  • Cai, H., Wu, L., Shi, Y., Gu, R., & Sedikides, C. (2016). Self-enhancement among Westerners and Easterners: A cultural neuroscience approach. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(10), 1569–1578. https://doi.org/10.1093/SCAN/NSW072
  • D’Ambrogio, E. (2020). Japan’s ageing society. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020/659419/EPRS_BRI(2020)659419_EN.pdf
  • Eldor, L. (2018). Public Service Sector: The compassionate workplace – The effect of compassion and stress on employee engagement, burnout, and performance. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 28(1), 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mux028
  • Ernst & Young. (2021). EY Jobstudie 2021: Motivation, Zufriedenheit und Work-Life-Balance Ergebnisse einer Befragung von 1.552 Beschäftigten in Deutschland. https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/eycom/de_de/news/2021/09/ey-jobstudie-motivation-und-zufriedenheit-2021.pdf
  • Fineman, S. (2000). Emotions in organizations. SAGE.
  • Forkus, S. R., Breines, J. G., & Weiss, N. H. (2019). Morally injurious experiences and mental health: The moderating role of self-compassion. Psychological Trauma, 2019(6), 11. https://doi.org/10.1037/TRA0000446
  • Galderisi, S., Heinz, A., Kastrup, M., Beezhold, J., & Sartorius, N. (2015). Toward a new definition of mental health. World Psychiatry : official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 14(2), 231–233. 10.1002/wps.20231 26043341
  • German Association for Psychiatry. (2019). Basisdaten Psychische Erkrankungen [Basic data on mental illnesses]. Author. https://www.awmf.org/leitlinien/detail/ll/038-009.html
  • German Federal Statistical Office. (2021). Registered deaths from suicide. Destatis. https://www.destatis.de/EN/Themes/Countries-Regions/International-Statistics/Data-Topic/Population-Labour-Social-Issues/Health/Suicide.html
  • Gilbert, P., Bhundia, R., Mitra, R., McEwan, K., Irons, C., & Sanghera, J. (2007). Cultural differences in shame-focused attitudes towards mental health problems in Asian and Non-Asian student women. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 10(2), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/13694670500415124
  • Goffnett, J., Liechty, J. M., & Kidder, E. (2020). Interventions to reduce shame: A systematic review. Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, 30(2), 141–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbct.2020.03.001
  • Greif, A. (1994). Cultural Beliefs and the Organization of Society: A Historical and Theoretical Reflection on Collectivist and Individualist Societies on JSTOR. Journal of Political Economy, 102(5), 912–950. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2138652 https://doi.org/10.1086/261959
  • Hannover, B. (1995). Self-serving biases and self-satisfaction in East Versus West German Students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(2), 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022195262005
  • Hapke, U., Cohrdes, C., & Nubel, J. (2019). Depressive symptoms in a European comparison – Results from the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) 2. Journal of Health Monitoring, 4(4), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.25646/6227
  • Harman, R., & Lee, D. (2010). The role of shame and self-critical thinking in the development and maintenance of current threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 17(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/CPP.636
  • Harzing, A.-W. (2006). Response styles in cross-national survey research. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 6(2), 243–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595806066332
  • Health and Safety Executive. (2021). Work-related stress, anxiety or depression statistics in Great Britain. Author.
  • Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., & Lehman, D. R. (2001). Cultural differences in self-evaluation: Japanese readily accept negative self-relevant information. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(4), 434–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032004004
  • Henrich, J. (2020). The weirdest people in the world: How the West became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous. Penguin Random House.
  • Hickey, L., & Stewart, M. (2005). Politeness in Europe. Multilingual Matters.
  • Hidaka, Y., Imamura, K., Watanabe, K., Tsutsumi, A., Shimazu, A., Inoue, A., Hiro, H., Odagiri, Y., Asai, Y., Yoshikawa, T., Yoshikawa, E., & Kawakami, N. (2021). Associations between work-related stressors and QALY in a general working population in Japan: a cross-sectional study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 94(6), 1375–1383. 10.1007/s00420-021-01710-1
  • Hilbert, A., Braehler, E., Schmidt, R., Lowe, B., Hauser, W., & Zenger, M. (2015). Self-compassion as a resource in the self-stigma process of overweight and obese individuals. Obesity Facts, 8(5), 293–301. https://doi.org/10.1159/000438681
  • Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
  • Holm-Hadulla, R. M., Mayer, C.-H., Wendler, H., Kremer, T. L., Kotera, Y., & Herpertz, S. C. (2022). Fear, depression, and well-being during COVID-19 in German and South African students: A cross- cultural comparison. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 920125. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920125
  • Horiuchi, S., Tsuda, A., Kim, E., Hong, K. S., Park, Y. S., & Kim, U. (2010). Relationships between stage of change for stress management behavior and perceived stress and coping. Japanese Psychological Research, 52(4), 291–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5884.2010.00444.x
  • Inoue, Y., Yamamoto, S., Fukunaga, A., Hoang, D. V., Miki, T., Islam, Z., Miyo, K., Ishii, M., Ishiwari, H., Konishi, M., Ohmagari, N., & Mizoue, T. (2021). Association between engagement in COVID-19-related work and depressive symptoms among hospital workers in a designated COVID-19 hospital in Japan: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 11(4), e049996. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049996
  • Kanfer, R., Chen, G., & Pritchard, R. D. (Eds.) (2008). Work motivation: Past, present, and future. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-09941-000
  • Kazekami, S. (2020). Mechanisms to improve labor productivity by performing telework. Telecommunications Policy, 44(2), 101868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2019.101868
  • Kikuchi, H., Odagiri, Y., Ohya, Y., Nakanishi, Y., Shimomitsu, T., Theorell, T., & Inoue, S. (2020). Association of overtime work hours with various stress responses in 59,021 Japanese workers: Retrospective cross-sectional study. PloS One, 15(3), e0229506. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0229506
  • Kim, S., Thibodeau, R., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2011). Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 68–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021466
  • Knieps, F., Pfaff, H., & Bas, B. (2021). Krise – Wandel – Aufbruch. BKK Gesundheitsreport 2021. Medizinisch Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG. https://www.mwv-berlin.de/produkte/!/id/794
  • Körner, A., Coroiu, A., Copeland, L., Gomez-Garibello, C., Albani, C., Zenger, M., & Brähler, E. (2015). The role of self-compassion in buffering symptoms of depression in the general population. PLoS One, 10(10), e0136598. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0136598
  • Kotera, Y., Adhikari, P., & Sheffield, D. (2020). Mental health of UK hospitality workers: Shame, self-criticism and self-reassurance. Service Industries Journal, 41(15–16), 76–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1713111
  • Kotera, Y., Green, P., & Sheffield, D. (2019). Mental health shame of UK construction workers: Relationship with masculinity, work motivation, and self-compassion. Revista de Psicologia Del Trabajo y de Las Organizaciones, 35(2), 15. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2019a15
  • Kotera, Y., Ozaki, A., Miyatake, H., Tsunetoshi, C., Nishikawa, Y., Kosaka, M., & Tanimoto, T. (2022). Qualitative investigation into the mental health of healthcare workers in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 568. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010568
  • Kotera, Y. (2021). De-stigmatising self-care: Impact of self-care webinar during COVID-19. International Journal of Spa and Wellness, 4(2–3), 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/24721735.2021.1892324
  • Kotera, Y., Adhikari, P., & Van Gordon, W. (2018). Motivation types and mental health of UK Hospitality Workers. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 16(3), 751–763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-9874-z
  • Kotera, Y., Conway, E., & Van Gordon, W. (2019). Ethical Judgement in UK Business Students: Relationship with motivation, self-compassion and mental health. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17(5), 1132–1146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-0034-2
  • Kotera, Y., Gilbert, P., Asano, K., Ishimura, I., & Sheffield, D. (2019). Self‐criticism and self‐reassurance as mediators between mental health attitudes and symptoms: Attitudes toward mental health problems in Japanese workers. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 22(2), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12355
  • Kotera, Y., Green, P., & Sheffield, D. (2019a). Mental health shame of UK construction workers: Relationship with masculinity, work motivation, and self-compassion. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 35(2), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2019a15
  • Kotera, Y., Green, P., & Sheffield, D. (2019b). Mental health attitudes, self-criticism, compassion and role identity among UK social work students. The British Journal of Social Work, 49(2), 351–370. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcy072
  • Kotera, Y., Mayer, C. H., & Vanderheiden, E. (2021). Cross-cultural comparison of mental health between german and South African Employees: Shame, Self-compassion, work engagement, and work motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 627851. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.627851
  • Kotera, Y., Ozaki, A., Miyatake, H., Tsunetoshi, C., Nishikawa, Y., & Tanimoto, T. (2021). Mental health of medical workers in Japan during COVID-19: Relationships with loneliness, hope and self-compassion. Current Psychology, 40(12), 6271–6274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01514-z
  • Kotera, Y., & Sheffield, D. (2020). Revisiting the self-compassion scale-short form: Stronger associations with self-inadequacy and resilience. SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine, 2(6), 761–769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00309-w
  • Kotera, Y., Sheffield, D., Green, P., & Asano, K. (2021). Cross-cultural comparison of mental health shame: Negative attitudes and external, internal, and reflected shame about mental health in Japanese and UK Workers. In Shame 4.0 (pp. 55–71). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59527-2_3
  • Kotera, Y., Taylor, E., Fido, D., Williams, D., & Tsuda-McCaie, F. (2021). Motivation of UK graduate students in education: Self-compassion moderates pathway from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. Current Psychology, 1, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12144-021-02301-6/FIGURES/5
  • Kotera, Y., Tsuda-McCaie, F., Maughan, G., & Green, P. (2022). Cross-cultural comparison of mental health in social work students between UK and Ireland: Mental health shame and self-compassion. The British Journal of Social Work, 52(6), 3247–3267. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab240
  • Kotera, Y., & Van Gordon, W. (2021). Effects of self-compassion training on work-related well-being: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 630798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.630798
  • Kotera, Y., Van Laethem, M., & Ohshima, R. (2020). Cross-cultural comparison of mental health between Japanese and Dutch workers: Relationships with mental health shame, self-compassion, work engagement and motivation. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 27(3), 511–530. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-02-2020-0055
  • Kurebayashi, Y. (2021). Self-compassion and nursing competency among Japanese psychiatric nurses. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 57(3), 1009–1018. https://doi.org/10.1111/PPC.12649
  • Kuroda, S., & Yamamoto, I. (2016). Workers’ mental health, long work hours, and workplace management: Evidence from workers’ longitudinal data in Japan. Discussion Papers. https://ideas.repec.org/p/eti/dpaper/16017.html
  • Lai, J., Ma, S., Wang, Y., Cai, Z., Hu, J., Wei, N., Wu, J., Du, H., Chen, T., Li, R., Tan, H., Kang, L., Yao, L., Huang, M., Wang, H., Wang, G., Liu, Z., & Hu, S. (2020). Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to Coronavirus Disease 2019. JAMA Network Open, 3(3), e203976. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976
  • Littler, J. (2019, March 20). The art of perseverance: How Gaman defined Japan. British Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20190319-the-art-of-perseverance-how-gaman-defined-japan
  • Liu, L. W., & Zhao, E. D. (2006). The CRIOCM 2006 International Symposium on “Advancement of construction management and real estate.” Comparison and Analysis of Employee Motivation in Cross-Culture Project Management. https://www.irb.fraunhofer.de/CIBlibrary/search-quick-result-list.jsp?A&idSuche=CIB+DC5713
  • López, A., Sanderman, R., Ranchor, A. V., & Schroevers, M. J. (2018). Compassion for others and self-compassion: Levels, correlates, and relationship with psychological well-being. Mindfulness, 9(1), 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0777-z
  • Lovibond, S., & Lovibond, P. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation of Australia.
  • Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2010). Shame as a traumatic memory. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 17(4), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/CPP.659
  • Mauz, E., Eicher, S., Peitz, D., Junker, S., Hölling, H., & Thom, J. (2021). Psychische Gesundheit der erwachsenen Bevölkerung in Deutschland während der COVID-19-Pandemie. Ein Rapid-Review. Journal of Health Monitoring, 6(S7), 2. https://doi.org/10.25646/9178.2
  • Mayer, C. H., & Oosthuizen, R. M. (2020). Sense of coherence, compassionate love and coping in international leaders during the transition into the fourth industrial revolution. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2829. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082829
  • Meyer, E. (2014). The culture map: Breaking through the invisible boundaries of global business. PublicAffairs. https://www.amazon.co.uk/Culture-Map-Breaking-Invisible-Boundaries/dp/1610392507
  • Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare. (2021). White paper about suicide prevention in Japan [Jisatsu taisaku hakusho]. Author. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/wp/hakusyo/jisatsu/16/index.html
  • Montero-Marin, J., Garcia-Campayo, J., López-Montoyo, A., Zabaleta-Del-Olmo, E., & Cuijpers, P. (2018). Is cognitive–behavioural therapy more effective than relaxation therapy in the treatment of anxiety disorders? A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 48(9), 1427–1436. 10.1017/S0033291717003099
  • Muris, P., Meesters, C., Pierik, A., & de Kock, B. (2016). Good for the self: Self-compassion and other self-related constructs in relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression in non-clinical youths. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(2), 607–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0235-2
  • Naito, T., & Gielen, U. (1992). Tatemae and honne: A study of moral relativism in Japanese culture. In U. P. Gielen, L. L. Adler, & N. A. Milgram (Eds.), Psychology in international perspective: 50 years of the International Council of Psychologists (pp. 161–172). Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-98749-011
  • Nakamura-Taira, N., Izawa, S., & Yamada, K. C. (2018). Stress underestimation and mental health literacy of depression in Japanese workers: A cross-sectional study. Psychiatry Research, 262, 221–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.090
  • National Statistics Center. (2015). National Census in the Year of Heisei 27. Author. https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00200521&tstat=000001080615&cycle=0&tclass1=000001080697&tclass2=000001084495&stat_infid=000031414894&tclass3val=0
  • Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
  • Oakman, J., Kinsman, N., Stuckey, R., Graham, M., & Weale, V. (2020). A rapid review of mental and physical health effects of working at home: How do we optimise health? BMC Public Health. 20(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12889-020-09875-Z/TABLES/5
  • Ogawa, R., Seo, E., Maeno, T., Ito, M., Sanuki, M., & Maeno, T. (2018). The relationship between long working hours and depression among first-year residents in Japan. BMC Medical Education, 18(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12909-018-1171-9/TABLES/3
  • Peer, E., Brandimarte, L., Samat, S., & Acquisti, A. (2017). Beyond the Turk: Alternative platforms for crowdsourcing behavioral research. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.01.006
  • Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self-compassion Scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
  • Saporito, J. M., Ryan, C., & Teachman, B. (2011). Reducing stigma toward seeking mental health treatment among adolescents. Stigma Research and Action, 1(2), 9–21. https://doi.org/10.5463/sra.v1i2.26
  • Schmidt, C. O., & Kohlmann, T. (2008). When to use the odds ratio or the relative risk? International Journal of Public Health, 53(3), 165–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-008-7068-3
  • Schomerus, G., Schwahn, C., Holzinger, A., Corrigan, P. W., Grabe, H. J., Carta, M. G., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2012). Evolution of public attitudes about mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125(6), 440–452. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01826.x 22242976
  • Shuper, P. A., Sorrentino, R. M., Otsubo, Y., Hodson, G., & Walker, A. M. (2004). A theory of uncertainty orientation: Implications for the study of individual differences within and across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(4), 460–480. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104266109
  • Skoda, E.-M., Spura, A., De Bock, F., Schweda, A., Dörrie, N., Fink, M., Musche, V., Weismüller, B., Benecke, A., Kohler, H., Junne, F., Graf, J., Bäuerle, A., & Teufel, M. (2021). [Change in psychological burden during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany: fears, individual behavior, and the relevance of information and trust in governmental institutions]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, Gesundheitsforschung, Gesundheitsschutz, 64(3), 322–333. 10.1007/s00103-021-03278-0 33481055
  • Takada, A. (2019). Socialization practices regarding shame in Japanese caregiver-child interactions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(JULY), 1545. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.2019.01545/PDF
  • Takahashi, T., Sugiyama, F., Kikai, T., Kawashima, I., Guan, S., Oguchi, M., Uchida, T., & Kumano, H. (2019). Changes in depression and anxiety through mindfulness group therapy in Japan: The role of mindfulness and self-compassion as possible mediators. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 13(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13030-019-0145-4/TABLES/4
  • Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Proneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.469
  • Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C. M., Taylor, S., Pelletier, L. G., & Villeneuve, M. (2009). Work Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: Its value for organizational psychology research. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences du Comportement, 41(4), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015167
  • Underwood, L. G. (2009). The human experience of compassionate love. In S. G., Post, L. G., Underwood, J., Schloss, W. B. Hurlbut (Eds.). In altruism and altruistic love (pp. 72–88). Oxford University Press.
  • United Nations. (2015). Sustainable Development Goals. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300
  • Watanabe, K., Imamura, K., & Kawakami, N. (2016). Working hours and the onset of depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 73(12), 877–884. https://doi.org/10.1136/OEMED-2016-103845
  • World Economic Forum. (2021). Global Gender Gap Report 2021. Author. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021
  • Yamagishi, T., Cook, K. S., & Watabe, M. (1998). Uncertainty, trust, and commitment formation in the United States and Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 104(1), 165–194. https://doi.org/10.1086/210005
  • Yamagishi, T., Hashimoto, H., Cook, K. S., Kiyonari, T., Shinada, M., Mifune, N., Inukai, K., Takagishi, H., Horita, Y., & Li, Y. (2012). Modesty in self-presentation: A comparison between the USA and Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 15(1), 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2011.01362.x
  • Yarnell, L. M., Stafford, R. E., Neff, K. D., Reilly, E. D., Knox, M. C., & Mullarkey, M. (2015). Meta-analysis of gender differences in self-compassion. Self and Identity, 14(5), 499–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2015.1029966
  • Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self-compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology, 7(3), 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/APHW.12051
  • Zhao, B., Pan, Y., Zhao, B., & Pan, Y. (2017). Cross-cultural employee motivation in international companies. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 05(04), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2017.54019

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.