Profiles of online racism exposure and mental health among Asian, Black, and Latinx emerging adults in the United States

References

• Ang, R. P., & Goh, D. H. (2010). Cyberbullying among adolescents: The role of affective and cognitive empathy, and gender. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41(4), 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-010-0176-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolck, A., Croon, M., & Hagenaars, J. (2004). Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators. Political Analysis, 12(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mph001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brondolo, E., Brady Ver Halen, N., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J. (2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 64–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner, J. D., Lewis, E. M., Shepherd, J. M., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2022). Ethnic discrimination and alcohol-related problem severity among Hispanic/Latin drinkers: The role of social anxiety in the minority stress model. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 138, 108730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2022.108730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cano, M. Á., Schwartz, S. J., MacKinnon, D. P., Keum, B. T. H., Prado, G., Marsiglia, F. F., Salas-Wright, C. P., Cobb, C. L., Garcini, L. M., De La Rosa, M., Sánchez, M., Rahman, A., Acosta, L. M., Roncancio, A. M., & de Dios, M. A. (2021). Exposure to ethnic discrimination in social media and symptoms of anxiety and depression among Hispanic emerging adults: Examining the moderating role of gender. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 571–586. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, D. H., Yip, T., Martz, C. D., Chung, K., Richeson, J. A., Hajat, A., Curtis, D. S., Rogers, L. O., & LaVeist, T. A. (2021). Vicarious racism and vigilance during the COVID-19 pandemic: Mental health implications among Asian and Black Americans. Public Health Reports, 136(4), 508–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549211018675
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, J. A., Zhang, E., & Liu, C. H. (2020). Potential impact of COVID-19–related racial discrimination on the health of Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 110(11), 1624–1627. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou, R. S., & Feagin, J. R. (2015). Myth of the model minority: Asian Americans facing racism. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., & Janicki-Deverts, D. (2012). Who’s stressed? Distributions of psychological stress in the United States in probability samples from 1983, 2006, and 20091. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(6), 1320–1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00900.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deters, F. G., & Mehl, M. R. (2013). Does posting Facebook status updates increase or decrease loneliness? An online social networking experiment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(5), 579–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612469233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dreyer, B. P., Trent, M., Anderson, A. T., Askew, G. L., Boyd, R., Coker, T. R., Coyne-Beasley, T., Fuentes-Afflick, E., Johnson, T., Mendoza, F., Montoya-Williams, D., Oyeku, S. O., Poitevien, P., Spinks-Franklin, A. A. I., Thomas, O. W., Walker-Harding, L., Willis, E., Wright, J. L., Berman, S., … Stein, F. (2020). The death of George Floyd: Bending the arc of history toward justice for generations of children. Pediatrics, 146(3), e2020009639. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-009639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, A. R., & Bolton Holz, K. (2010). Testing a model of women’s personal sense of justice, control, well-being, and distress in the context of sexist discrimination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01576.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The impact of daily stress on adolescents’ depressed mood: The role of social support seeking through Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 44, 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost, R. L., & Rickwood, D. J. (2017). A systematic review of the mental health outcomes associated with Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 576–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaylord-Harden, N. K., & Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The impact of racial discrimination and coping strategies on internalizing symptoms in African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(4), 532–543. 10.1007/s10964-008-9377-5 19636726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. The American Psychologist, 71(8), 742–751. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T. (2017). Qualitative Examination on the Influences of the Internet on Racism and its Online Manifestation. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 7(3), 13–22. 10.4018/IJCBPL.2017070102
   Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., & Choi, A. Y. (2022). COVID-19 Racism, Depressive Symptoms, Drinking to Cope Motives, and Alcohol Use Severity Among Asian American Emerging Adults. Emerging Adulthood, 10(6), 1591–1601. 10.1177/21676968221117421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., Brady, J. L., Sharma, R., Lu, Y., Kim, Y. H., & Thai, C. J. (2018). Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Asian American Women: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(5), 571–585. 10.1037/cou0000305 30058827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T. (2021). Development and validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale short form (15 items) and very brief (six items). Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 3, 100082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100082
   Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T. H., & Cano, M. Á. (2021). Online racism, psychological distress, and alcohol use among racial minority women and men: A multi-group mediation analysis. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 91(4), 524–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., & Li, X. (2022b). Coping with online racism: Patterns of online social support seeking and anti-racism advocacy associated with online racism, and correlates of ethnic-racial socialization, perceived health, and alcohol use severity. PloS One, 17(12), e0278763. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278763
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., & Miller, M. J. (2017). Racism in digital era: Development and initial validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale (PORS v1.0). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(3), 310–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., & Miller, M. J. (2018). Racism on the Internet: Conceptualization and recommendations for research. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 782–791. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., & Li, X. (2022a). Online racism, rumination, and vigilance: Impact on distress, loneliness, and alcohol Use. The Counseling Psychologist, 0(0).https://doi.org/10.1177/00110000221143521
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Y. T., Vue, S., Seklecki, R., & Ma, Y. (2007). How did Asian Americans respond to negative stereotypes and hate crimes? American Behavioral Scientist, 51(2), 271–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207306059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee-Won, R. J., Lee, J. Y., Song, H., & Borghetti, L. (2017). “To the bottle I go… to drain my strain”: Effects of microblogged racist messages on target group members’ intention to drink alcohol. Communication Research, 44(3), 388–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215607595
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lench, H. C., & Chang, E. S. (2007). Belief in an unjust world: When beliefs in a just world fail. Journal of Personality Assessment, 89(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890701468477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, C. T., & Borders, A. (2012). Beliefs in an unjust world mediate the associations between perceived ethnic discrimination and psychological functioning. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(4), 528–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). The associations between problematic Facebook use, psychological distress and well-being among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 226, 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masyn, K. E. (2013). Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In T. D. Little (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods: Vol. 2: Statistical analysis (pp. 551–611). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maxie‐Moreman, A. D., & Tynes, B. M. (2022). Exposure to online racial discrimination and traumatic events online in Black adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 32(1), 254–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2000). Finite mixture models. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. (1998–2017). Mplus user’s guide. (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Nylund, K. L. (2007). Latent transition analysis: Modeling extensions and an application to peer victimization [Doctoral dissertation], University of California, Los Angeles.
   Google Scholar
• Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund-Gibson, K., & Choi, A. Y. (2018). Ten frequently asked questions about latent class analysis. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 4(4), 440–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000176
   Google Scholar
• Nylund-Gibson, K., & Masyn, K. E. (2016). Covariates and mixture modeling: Results of a simulation study exploring the impact of misspecified effects on class enumeration. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(6), 782–797. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2016.1221313
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund-Gibson, K., Grimm, R. P., & Masyn, K. E. (2019). Prediction from latent classes: A demonstration of different approaches to include distal outcomes in mixture models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26(6), 967–985. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2019.1590146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittman, D. M., Brooks, J. J., Kaur, P., & Obasi, E. M. (2019). The cost of minority stress: Risky alcohol use and coping-motivated drinking behavior in African American college students. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 18(2), 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2017.1336958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, W. A. (2014). Racial battle fatigue in higher education: Exposing the myth of post-racial America. Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, A. J., & King, C. T. (2007). Gendered racial socialization of African American mothers and daughters. The Family Journal, 15(2), 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480706297853
   Google Scholar
• Tynes, B. M., Lozada, F. T., Smith, N. A., & Stewart, A. M. (2018). From racial microaggressions to hate crimes: A model of online racism based on the lived experiences of adolescents of color. In G. C. Torino, D. P. Rivera, C. M. Capodilupo, K. L. Nadal, & D. W. Sue (Eds.), Microaggression theory: Influence and implications (pp. 194–212). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Veit, C. T., & Ware, J. E. (1983). The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(5), 730–742. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.5.730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well-being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermunt, J. K. (2010). Latent class modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step approaches. Political Analysis, 18(4), 450–469. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpq025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpe, V. V., Hoggard, L. S., Willis, H. A., & Tynes, B. M. (2021). Anti-Black structural racism goes online: A conceptual model for racial health disparities research. Ethnicity & Disease, 31(Suppl 1), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.31.S1.311
   PubMedGoogle Scholar