Racialised identity, racism and the mental health of children and adolescents

References

• Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychology.
   Google Scholar
• Adam, E. K., Hittner, E. F., Thomas, S. E., Villaume, S. C., & Nwafor, E. E. (2020). Racial discrimination and ethnic racial identity in adolescence as modulators of HPA axis activity. Development and Psychopathology, 32(5), 1669–1684. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942000111X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aloe, A. M., & Thompson, C. G. (2013). The synthesis of partial effect sizes. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 4(4), 390–405. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2013.24
   Google Scholar
• Appiah, K. A. (2000). Stereotypes and the shaping of identity. California Law Review, 88(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.2307/3481272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, T. K. M., Yeh, C. J., & Madu, K. ‑ (2022). Exploring Black adolescent males’ experiences with racism and internalized racial oppression. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(4), 375–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balduzzi, S., Rücker, G., & Schwarzer, G. (2019). How to perform a meta-analysis with R: A practical tutorial. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 22(4), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2019-300117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernard, D. L., Calhoun, C. D., Banks, D. E., Halliday, C. A., Hughes-Halbert, C., & Danielson, C. K. (2021). Making the "C-ACE" for a culturally-informed adverse childhood experiences framework to understand the pervasive mental health impact of racism on black youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 14(2), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-020-00319-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bhugra, D., Wijesuriya, R., Gnanapragasam, S., & Persaud, A. (2020). Black and minority mental health in the UK: Challenges and solutions. Forensic Science International, 1, 100036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsiml.2020.100036
   Google Scholar
• Bianca, C. S. D., Ramona, P. L., & Ioana, M. V. (2022). The relationship between coping strategies and life quality in major depressed patients. The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery, 58(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41983-022-00545-y
   Google Scholar
• Blitz, L. V., & Greene, M. P. (2006). Racism and racial identity: Reflections on urban practice in mental health and social services. Journal of Emotional Abuse: v. 6, no. 2/3. Haworth Maltreatment & Trauma Press.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Brittian, A. S., Toomey, R. B., Gonzales, N. A., & Dumka, L. E. (2013). Perceived discrimination, coping strategies, and Mexican origin adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors: examining the moderating role of gender and cultural orientation. Applied Developmental Science, 17(1), 4–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2013.748417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, R. K., Duarte, B. A., Miller, A. N., Schwartz, S. E. O., & LoPresti, J. (2022). Racial discrimination, self-compassion, and mental health: The moderating role of self-judgment. Mindfulness, 13(8), 1994–2006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01936-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camp, S. (2015). Black is beautiful: An American history. The Journal of South History, LXXXI(3), 675–690.
   Google Scholar
• Cheeks, B. L., Chavous, T. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2020). A daily examination of african american adolescents’ racial discrimination, parental racial socialization, and psychological affect. Child Development, 91(6), 2123–2140. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.). New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Cooley, S., Elenbaas, L., & Killen, M. (2016). Social exclusion based on group membership is a form of prejudice. In Stacey S. Horn, Martin D. Ruck, Lynn S. Liben (Ed.), Equity and Justice in Developmental Science: Implications for Young People, Families, and Communities. (Vol. 51, pp. 103–129). Elsevier Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.04.004
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, S. M., & McLoyd, V. C. (2011). Racial barrier socialization and the well-being of African american adolescents: The moderating role of mother-adolescent relationship quality. Journal of Research on Adolescence 21(4), 895–903. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00749.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronholm, P. F., Forke, C. M., Wade, R., Bair-Merritt, M. H., Davis, M., Harkins-Schwarz, M., Pachter, L. M., & Fein, J. A. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences: Expanding the concept of adversity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 49(3), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuellar, I., Arnold, B., & Maldonado, R. (1995). Acculturation rating scale for Mexican Americans-II: A revision of the original ARSMA scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17(3), 275–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863950173001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’hondt, F., Eccles, J. S., van Houtte, M., & Stevens, P. A. J. (2017). The relationships of teacher ethnic discrimination, ethnic identification, and host national identification to school misconduct of Turkish and Moroccan immigrant adolescents in Belgium. Deviant Behavior, 38(3), 318–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1197004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David, E. J. R., Schroeder, T. M., & Fernandez, J. (2019). Internalized racism: A systematic review of the psychological literature on racism’s most insidious consequence. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1057–1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12350
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglass, S., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2015). A brief form of the ethnic identity scale: development and empirical validation. Identity, 15(1), 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2014.989442
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece , et al. (1983). Expectancies, values, and achievement behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), A series of books in psychology. Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches. (pp. 75–146). W.H. Freeman.
   Google Scholar
• Edelbrock, C., & Achenbach, T. M. (1980). A typology of child behavior profile patterns: Distribution and correlates for disturbed children aged 6–16. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8(4), 441–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00916500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York.
   Google Scholar
• Fanon, F. (1986, 1967). Black skin, white masks. Liberation classics. Pluto.
   Google Scholar
• Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026455906512
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galliher, R. V., McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (2017). An integrated developmental model for studying identity content in context. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2011–2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronimus, A. (1992). The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: evidence and speculations. Ethnicity & Disease, 2(3), 207–221. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45403051
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geronimus, A. T., Bound, J., Waidmann, T. A., Hillemeier, M. M., & Burns, P. B. (1996). Excess mortality among blacks and whites in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine, 335(21), 1552–1558. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199611213352102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilroy, P. (1991). There ain’t no black in the Union Jack”: The cultural politics of race and nation. Black Literature and Culture. University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ginwright, S. A. (2010). Black youth rising: Activism and radical healing in urban America. Teachers College.
   Google Scholar
• Goodman, R. (1999). The extended version of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire as a guide to child psychiatric caseness and consequent burden. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 40(5), 791–799. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales, N. A., Gunnoe, M. L., Samaniego, R., & Jackson, K. (1995). Validation of a multicultural event schedule for adolescents: Paper presented at the Fifth Biennial Conference of the Society for Community Research and Action Chicago, IL.
   Google Scholar
• Gorski, P. C. (2019). Racial battle fatigue and activist burnout in racial justice activists of color at predominately White colleges and universities. Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2018.1497966
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groen, S. P. N., Richters, A. J. M., Laban, C. J., van Busschbach, J. T., Devillé, W. L., & J., M. (2019). Cultural identity confusion and psychopathology: A mixed-methods study among refugees and asylum seekers in the Netherlands. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 207(3), 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Gudergan, S. (2017). Advanced issues in partial least squares structural equation modeling (1st). SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, S. (2021). Cultural Identity and Diaspora. In S. Hall, P. Gilroy, & R. W. Gilmore (Eds.), Stuart hall: selected writings. Selected writings on race and difference. (pp. 257–272). Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harrell, S. P. (1997). The racism and life experience scales. Unpublished instrument. Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University.
   Google Scholar
• Heard-Garris, N., Boyd, R., Kan, K., Perez-Cardona, L., Heard, N. J., & Johnson, T. J. (2021). Structuring Poverty: How Racism Shapes Child Poverty and Child and Adolescent Health. Academic pediatrics, 21(8S), S108–S116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2021.05.026
   Google Scholar
• Heinz, A., Bermpohl, F., & Frank, M. (2012). Construction and interpretation of self-related function and dysfunction in Intercultural Psychiatry. European Psychiatry, 27 (Suppl 2), 43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(12)75706-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Henssler, J., Brandt, L., Müller, M., Liu, S., Montag, C., Sterzer, P., & Heinz, A. (2020). Migration and schizophrenia: Meta-analysis and explanatory framework. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 270(3), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-019-01028-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill Collins, P. (1997). Comment on Hekman’s “Truth and method: Feminist standpoint theory revisited. : Where’s the Power? Signs: Journals of Women in Culture and Society, 22(2)
   Google Scholar
• Hittner, E. F., & Adam, E. K. (2020). Emotional pathways to the biological embodiment of racial discrimination experiences. Psychosomatic Medicine, 82(4), 420–431. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000792
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• hooks, b. (2014). Black looks: Race and representation/bell hooks (Second edition). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, D. L., Watford, J. A., & Del Toro, J. (2016). A transactional/ecological perspective on ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. In Stacey S. Horn, Martin D. Ruck, Lynn S. Liben (Ed.), Equity and Justice in Developmental Science: Implications for Young People, Families, and Communities. (Vol. 51, pp. 1–41). https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.001
   Google Scholar
• James, D. (2022). An initial framework for the study of internalized racism and health: Internalized racism as a racism‐induced identity threat response. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 16(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaramillo, J., Mello, Z. R., & Worrell, F. C. (2016). ethnic identity, stereotype threat, and perceived discrimination among native American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 769–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juang, L. P., Moffitt, U., Schachner, M. K., & Pevec, S. (2021). Understanding ethnic-racial identity in a context where “race” is taboo. Identity, 21(3), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2021.1932901
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakayali, J., Heller, M, & von Unger H. (2022). Rassismus und segregation: Othering in Forschungsprozess zu Schule und Segregation. In I. Siouti, T. Spies, E. Tuider, & E. Yildiz (Eds.), Othering in der postmigrantischen Gesellschaft. (pp. 179–200). Transcript Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Kazdin, A. E., French, N. H., Unis, A. S., Esveldt-Dawson, K., & Sherick, R. B. (1983). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(4), 504–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.4.504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenny, D. A. (2018). Moderation. Retrieved from http://davidakenny.net/cm/moderation.htm
   Google Scholar
• Ketheesan, S., Rinaudo, M., Berger, M., Wenitong, M., Juster, R. P., McEwen, B. S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2020). Stress, allostatic load and mental health in indigenous Australians., 23(5), 509–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2020.1732346
   Google Scholar
• Laursen, B., & Williams, V. (2009). The role of ethnic identity in personality development. In L. Pulkkinen & A. Caspi (Eds.), Paths to Successful Development. (pp. 203–226). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489761.009
   Google Scholar
• Lazaridou, F. B., Schubert, S. J., Ringeisen, T., Kaminski, J., Heinz, A., & Kluge, U. (2022). Racism and psychosis: An umbrella review and qualitative analysis of the mental health consequences of racism. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-022-01468-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J. P., Lee, R. M., Hu, A. W., & Kim, O. M. (2015). Ethnic identity as a moderator against discrimination for transracially and transnationally adopted Korean American adolescents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 6(2), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesane-Brown, C. L. (2006). A review of race socialization within Black families. Developmental Review, 26(4), 400–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2006.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorde, A. (2019). Sister outsider. Penguin modern classics. Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Luthar, S. S., Ebbert, A. M., & Kumar, N. L. (2021). Risk and resilience among Asian American youth: Ramifications of discrimination and low authenticity in self-presentations. American Psychologist, 76(4), 643–657. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000764
   Google Scholar
• Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcelo, A. K., & Yates, T. M. (2019). Young children’s ethnic-racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks, A. K., Calzada, E., Kiang, L., Pabón Gautier, M. C., Martinez-Fuentes, S., Tuitt, N. R., Ejesi, K., Rogers, L. O., Williams, C. D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. (2020). Applying the lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity: eploring affect, behaviour and cognition to promote well-being. Research in Human Development, 17(2-3), 154–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1854607
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2016). Understanding the burnout experience: Recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 15(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory manual. (3rd ed.). Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• McConaughy, S., & Achenbach, T. (2004). Manual for the ASEBA Test Observation Form. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.
   Google Scholar
• McEwen, B. S., & Seeman, T. (1999). Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 30–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08103.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meca, A., Gonzales-Backen, M., Davis, R., Rodil, J., Soto, D., & Unger, J. B. (2020). Discrimination and ethnic identity: Establishing directionality among Latino/a youth. Developmental Psychology, 56(5), 982–992. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehran, N., Abi Jumaa, J., Lazaridou, F. B., Foroutan, N., Heinz, A., & Kluge, U. (2022). Spatiality of social stress experienced by refugee women in initial reception centers. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 23(4), 1685–1709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-021-00890-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neblett, E. W. Jr., Sosoo, E. E., Willis, H. A., Bernard, D. L., Bae, J., & Billingsley, J. T. (2016). Racism. Racial Resilience, and African American Youth Development: Person-Centered Analysis as a Tool to Promote Equity and Justice. Advances in child development and behavior, 51, 43–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.004
   Google Scholar
• Njoroge, W. F. M., Forkpa, M., & Bath, E. (2021). Impact of racial discrimination on the mental health of minoritized youth. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(12), 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01297-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pachter, L. M., Szalacha, L. A., Bernstein, B. A., & Coll, C. G. (2010). Perceptions of racism in children and youth (PRaCY): Properties of a self-report instrument for research on children’s health and development. Ethnicity & Health, 15(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557850903383196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, R. A., & Brown, S. P. (2005). On the use of beta coefficients in meta-analysis. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyke, K. D. (2010). What is internalized racial oppression and why don’t we study it? acknowledging racism’s hidden injuries. Sociological Perspectives, 53(4), 551–572. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2010.53.4.551
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roach, E. L., Haft, S. L., Huang, J., & Zhou, Q. (2022). Systematic review: The association between race-related stress and trauma and emotion dysregulation in youth of color. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 62(2), 190–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.04.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers, J. L., & Nicewander, W. A. (1988). Thirteen ways to look at the correlation coefficient. The American Statistician, 42(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00031305.1988.10475524
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saleem, F. T., Anderson, R. E., & Williams, M. (2020). Addressing the "myth" of racial trauma: Developmental and ecological considerations for youth of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 23(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00304-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saleh, E. A., Lazaridou, F. B., Klapprott, F., Wazaify, M., Heinz, A., & Kluge, U. (2022). A systematic review of qualitative research on substance use among refugees. Addiction, 118(2), 218–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scottham, K. M., Sellers, R. M., & Nguyên, H. X. (2008). A measure of racial identity in African American adolescents: The development of the multidimensional inventory of black identity–Teen. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seaton, E. K., Iida, M., & Morris, K. (2022). The impact of internalized racism on daily depressive symptoms among black American adolescents. Adversity and Resilience Science, 3(3), 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-022-00061-1
   Google Scholar
• Seo, E, & Lee, Y. K. ‑ (2021). Stereotype threat in high school classrooms: how it links to teacher mindset climate, mathematics anxiety, and achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(7), 1410–1423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01435-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sladek, M. R., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Oh, G., Spang, M. B., Tirado, L. M. U., Vega, L. M. T., McDermott, E. R., & Wantchekon, K. A. (2020). Ethnic-racial discrimination experiences and ethnic-racial identity predict adolescents’ psychosocial adjustment: Evidence for a compensatory risk-resilience model. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 44(5), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025420912013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007). Assume the position. You Fit the description. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207307742
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, M. (2020). Rethinking minority status and ‘visibility. Comparative Migration Studies, 8(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-019-0162-2
   Google Scholar
• Stephan, C. W., & Stephan, W. G. (2000). The measurement of racial and ethnic identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(5), 541–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(00)00016-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, E. A. (2003). School social bonds, school climate, and school misbehavior: A multilevel analysis. Justice Quarterly, 20(3), 575–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820300095621
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syed, M., & Fish, J. (2018). Revisiting Erik Erikson’s legacy on culture, race, and ethnicity. Identity, 18(4), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523729
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao, C., & Scott, K. A. (2022). Do African American adolescents internalize direct online discrimination? Moderating effects of vicarious online discrimination, parental technological attitudes, and racial identity centrality. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 862557. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.862557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Townsend, T. G., Kaltman, S., Saleem, F., Coker-Appiah, D. S., & Green, B. L. (2020). Ethnic disparities in trauma-related mental illness: Is ethnic identity a buffer? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(11-12), 2164–2188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517701454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tribble, B. L. D., Allen, S. H., Hart, J. R., Francois, T. S., & Smith-Bynum, M. A. (2019). no right way to be a black woman": Exploring gendered racial socialization among black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(3), 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318825439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells, G., Shea, B., O’Connell, D., Peterson, J., Welch, V., & Losos, M. (2013). & Tugwell, P. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp
   Google Scholar
• Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., McMorris, B. J., Chen, X., & Stubben, J. D. (2001). Perceived discrimination and early substance abuse among American Indian children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(4), 405–424. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L., François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., Pedersen, T., Miller, E., Bache, S., Müller, K., Ooms, J., Robinson, D., Seidel, D., Spinu, V., … Yutani, H. (2019). Welcome to the Tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software, 4(43), 1686. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686
   Google Scholar
• Williams, J. L., Aiyer, S. M., Durkee, M. I., & Tolan, P. H. (2014). The protective role of ethnic identity for urban adolescent males facing multiple stressors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(10), 1728–1741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0071-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., Bernard, D. L., Neal, A., & Neblett, E. W. (2021). The Associations Between Internalized Racism, Racial Identity, and Psychological Distress. Emerging Adulthood (Print), 9(4), 384–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968211005598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winters, M. F. (2020). ‑ Black Fatigue: How Racism Erodes the Mind, Body, and Spirit. Business book summary. Berrett-Koehler.
   Google Scholar
• Workneh, L., Thompson, C., Ware, J., Odero, D., & Thomas, S. (2021). Good night stories for rebel girls: 100 real-life tales of black girl magic. rebel girls: Vol. 4. Rebel girls.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, M. M. (2004). Becoming black: Creating identity in the African diaspora/Michelle M. Wright. Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zubin, J., & Spring, B. (1977). Vulnerability–a new view of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86(2), 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.86.2.103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar