‘You are safe. You are not alone:’ gender and Social Support Coping (SSC) in public safety personnel

References

• 2019 Women in policing: Breaking barriers and blazing a path. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/252963.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Acker J. (2006). Inequality Regimes. Gender & Society, 20(4), 441–464. doi: 10.1177/0891243206289499
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acker, J. (1992). From sex roles to gendered institutions. Contemporary Sociology, 21(5), 565.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addis M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58(1), 5–14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angehrn, A. (2020). “Suck it up, Buttercup”: The role of gender in the mental health of police officers (Master’s thesis). University of Regina. Proquest.
   Google Scholar
• Angehrn, A., Vig, K. D., Mason, J. E., Stelnicki, A. M., Shields, R. E., Asmundson, G. J. G., & Carleton, R. N. (2021). Sex differences in mental disorder symptoms among Canadian police officers: The mediating role of social support, stress, and sleep quality. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2021.1877338
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anshel, M. (1996). Coping styles among adolescent competitive athletes. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136(3), 311–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonucci, T. C., & Akiyama, H. (1987). An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women. Sex Roles, 17(11), 737–749.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arble, E., & Arnetz, B. B. (2017). A model of first-responder coping: An approach/avoidance bifurcation: First-responder coping. Stress and Health, 33(3), 223–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashlock, J. M. (2019). Gender attitudes of police officers: Selection and socialization mechanisms in the life course. Social Science Research, 79, 71–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbee, A. P., Cunningham, M. R., Winstead, B. A., Derlega, V. J., Gulley, M. R., Yankeelov, P. A., & Druen, P. B. (1993). Effects of gender role expectations on the social support process. Journal of Social Issues, 49(3), 175–190.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazina, C. (2001). Analytic psychology and gender role conflict: The development of the fragile masculine self. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38(1), 50–59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R., Holmstrom, A. J., & Gilstrap, C. M. (2005). “Guys can’t say that to guys:” Four experiments assessing the normative motivation account for deficiencies in emotional support provided by men. Communication Monographs, 72(4), 468–501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Institute for Public Safety Research and Treatment (CIPSRT). (2019). Glossary of terms: A shared understanding of the common terms used to describe psychological trauma (version 2.0). Regina, Sk: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Carleton R. Nicholas et al . (2018). Mental Disorder Symptoms among Public Safety Personnel in Canada. Can J Psychiatry, 63(1), 54–64. doi:10.1177/0706743717723825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, R. N., Afifi, T. O., Taillieu, T., Turner, S., Mason, J. E., Ricciardelli, R., … Griffiths, C. T. (2020). Assessing the relative impact of diverse stressors among public safety personnel. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carleton, R. N., Krakauer, R., MacPhee, R. S., Cramm, H. A., Groll, D., Afifi, T. O., … McCreary, D. R. (2019). Exposures to potentially traumatic events among public safety personnel in Canada. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science; Ottawa, 51(1), 37–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J., Doran, S., & Marel, C. (2010). Doing and undoing gender in policing. Theoretical Criminology, 14(4), 425–446.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). London, England: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Chetkovich, C. (2004). Women’s agency in a context of oppression: Assessing strategies for personal action and public policy. Hypatia, 19(4), 122–143.
   Google Scholar
• Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015). Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 26068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, K. S., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of posttrauma distorted beliefs: Evaluating DSM-5 PTSD expanded cognitive symptoms in a national sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 299–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick, P., & Jankowicz, D.(2001)A social constructionist account of police culture and its influence on the representation and progression of female officers: A repertory grid analysis in a UK police force. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management ,24 ,181–199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Crowley, M. (1986). Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100(3), 283–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evarts, B., & Stein, G. (2020). NFPA report—U.S. fire department profile. Retrieved from https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Data-research-and-tools/Emergency-Responders/US-fire-department-profile
   Google Scholar
• Fauerbach, J. A., Lawrence, J. W., Fogel, J., Richter, L., Magyar‐Russell, G., McKibben, J. B. A., & Mccann, U. (2009). Approach–avoidance coping conflict in a sample of burn patients at risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26(9), 838–850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, B., & Broussard, C. A. (2005). The influence of relational factors on men’s adjustment to their partners’ newly diagnosed breast cancer. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 23(2/3), 23–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R.S. (1980). An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219. doi:10.2307/2136617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman, S., & Lazarus, Richard S. 1991. Coping and emotion Monat, Alan, and Lazarus, Richard S. Stress and coping: An anthology (pp. 207–227). New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/mona92982-018
   Google Scholar
• Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Epstein, R. S., Crowley, B., Vance, K., Kao, T. C., … Baum, A. (2001). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(9), 1486–1491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory (pp. 1–19). London: Weidenfield & Nicolson.
   Google Scholar
• Goh, Y. W., Sawang, S., & Oei, T. P. S. (2010). The revised transactional model (RTM) of occupational stress and coping: An improved process approach. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Organisational Psychology, 3, 13–20.
   Google Scholar
• Gouliquer, L., Poulin, C., & McWilliams, J. (2020). Othering of full-time and volunteer women firefighters in the Canadian fire services. Qualitative Sociology Review, 16(3), 48–69.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Canada, S.C. (2019, October 3). The daily—Police resources in Canada, 2018. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/191003/dq191003a-eng.htm
   Google Scholar
• Green, B. L. (1994). Psychosocial research in traumatic stress: An update. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(3), 341–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haarr, R. N., & Morash, M. (1999). Gender, race, and strategies of coping with occupational stress in policing. Justice Quarterly, 16(2), 303–336.
   Google Scholar
• Haarr, R. N. (1997). Patterns of interaction in a police patrol bureau: Race and gender barriers to integration. Justice Quarterly, 14(1), 53–85.
   Google Scholar
• Haarr, R. N. (2005). Factors affecting the decision of police recruits to “Drop out” of police work. Police Quarterly, 8(4), 431–453.
   Google Scholar
• Haines, K. J., Beesley, S. J., Hopkins, R. O., McPeake, J., Quasim, T., Ritchie, K., & Iwashyna, T. J. (2018). Peer support in critical care: A systematic review. Critical Care Medicine, 46(9), 1522–1531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2006). Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1134–1145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, N., Zhao, J., & Ren, L. (2005). Do race and gender matter in police stress?A preliminary assessment of the interactive effects. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(6), 535–547.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse-Biber, S., & Leavy, P. (2010). The practice of qualitative research. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi: SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsson, A., Backteman-Erlanson, S., Brulin, C., & Hörnsten, Å. (2015). Experiences of critical incidents among female and male firefighters. International Emergency Nursing, 23(2), 100–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karaffa, K., Openshaw, L., Koch, J., Clark, H., Harr, C., & Stewart, C. (2015). Perceived impact of police work on marital relationships. The Family Journal, 23(2), 120–131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause, E. D., DeRosa, R. R., & Roth, S. (2002). Gender, trauma themes, and PTSD: Narratives of male and female survivors. In Gender and PTSD (pp. 349–381). New York, London: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Krohne, H. W. (1996). Individual differences in coping Zeidner, M., and Endler, N. S. In Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications (pp. 381–409). New York, Chicester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Lilly, M. M., Pole, N., Best, S. R., Metzler, T., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Gender and PTSD: What can we learn from female police officers? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(6), 767–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litz, B. T., Orsillo, S. M., Friedman, M., Ehlich, P., & Batres, A. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with peacekeeping duty in Somalia for U.S. military personnel. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 178–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litz, B. T., Orsillo, S. M., Kaloupek, D., & Weathers, F. (2000). Emotional processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 26–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorber, J. (1993). Believing is seeing: Biology as ideology. Gender and Society, 7(4), 568–581.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahalik, J. R., & Cournoyer, R. J. (2000). Identifying gender role conflict messages that distinguish mildly depressed from nondepressed men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 1(2), 109–115.
   Google Scholar
• Marx, B. P., & Sloan, D. M. (2005). Peritraumatic dissociation and experiential avoidance as predictors of posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(5), 569–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ménard, K. S., & Arter, M. L. (2014). Stress, coping, alcohol use, and posttraumatic stress disorder among an international sample of police officers: Does gender matter? Police Quarterly, 17(4), 307–327.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, M. (2000). Barbie girls versus sea monsters. Gender & Society, 14(6), 765–784.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles, S. R., Menefee, D. S., Wanner, J., Tharp, A. T., & Kent, T. A. (2016). The relationship between emotion dysregulation and impulsive aggression in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(10), 1795–1816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mustard C A, Bielecky A, Etches J, Wilkins R, Tjepkema M, Amick B C, Smith P M, Gnam W H and Aronson K J. (2010). Suicide Mortality by Occupation in Canada, 1991–2001. Can J Psychiatry, 55(6), 369–376. 10.1177/070674371005500606
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolan, T. (2009). Behind the blue wall of silence: Essay. Men and Masculinities, 12(2), 250–257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on men’s gender role conflict. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), The new psychology of men (pp. 164–206). New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Pasciak, A. R., & Kelley, T. M. (2013). Conformity to traditional gender norms by male police officers exposed to trauma: Implications for critical incident stress debriefing. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 9(2), 137–156.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson, G. T. (2003). Examining the effects of coping and social support on work and life stress among police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(3), 215–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pernice-Duca, F. (2010). Family network support and mental health recovery. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 36(1), 13–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrewé, P. L., & Carlson, D. S. (2002). Do men and women benefit from social support equally? Results from a field examination within the work and family context Nelson, D. L., & Burke, R. J. In Gender, work stress, and health (pp. 101–114). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 978-1-55798-923-9. doi:10.1037/10467-007
   Google Scholar
• Pineles, S. L., Arditte Hall, K. A., & Rasmusson, A. M. (2017). Gender and PTSD: Different pathways to a similar phenotype. Current Opinion in Psychology, 14, 44–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plummer, D. L., & Slane, S. (1996). Patterns of coping in racially stressful situations. Journal of Black Psychology, 22(3), 302–315.
   Google Scholar
• Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2010). The relation of perceived and received social support to mental health among first responders: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 403–417.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prokos, A., & Padavic, I. (2002). ‘There Oughtta Be a Law Against Bitches’: Masculinity Lessons in Police Academy Training. Gender, Work & Organization, 9(4), 439–459. doi:10.1111/1468-0432.00168
   Google Scholar
• Rabe‐Hemp, C. (2008). Survival in an “all boys club”: Policewomen and their fight for acceptance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 31(2), 251–270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regehr, C., & LeBlanc, V. R. (2017). PTSD, acute stress, performance and decision-making in emergency service workers. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 45(2), 10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricciardelli, R., Carleton, R. N., Groll, D., & Cramm, H. (2018). Qualitatively unpacking Canadian public safety personnel experiences of trauma and their well-being. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(4), 566–577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffer, T. (2010). A comparison of firefighters and police officers: The influence of gender and relationship status. Adultspan Journal, 9(1), 36–49.
   Google Scholar
• Shelley, T. O., Morabito, M. S., & Tobin-Gurley, J. (2011). Gendered institutions and gender roles: Understanding the experiences of women in policing. Criminal Justice Studies, 24(4), 351–367.
   Google Scholar
• Silvestri, M. (2017). Police culture and gender: Revisiting the ‘cult of masculinity. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 11(3), 289–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smiler, A. P. (2006). Conforming to masculine norms: Evidence for validity among adult men and women. Sex Roles, 54(11), 767–775.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroink, M. L. (2004). The conflicting standards dilemma and gender: A mediating model of its affective implications and coping styles. The Journal of Social Psychology, 104(3), 273–292.
   Google Scholar
• Swickert, R., & Hittner, J. (2009). Social support coping mediates the relationship between gender and posttraumatic growth. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(3), 387–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 2–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107(3), 411–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Target article: “Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence”. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoits, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 416–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. PsycholBull, 132, 959–992.
   Google Scholar
• Twersky-Glasner, A. (2005). Police personality: What is it and why are they like that? J Police Crim Psych, 20(1), 56–67. doi:10.1007/BF02806707
   Google Scholar
• Van der Doef, M., & Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control (-Support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research. Work and Stress, 13(2), 87–114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(2), 314–334.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Pressly, P., & Heesacker, M. (2002). Sex and emotion: A critical review of the literature and implications of counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 30(4), 629–651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar