9,383
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A predisposition to brutality? German practices against civilians and francs-tireurs during the Franco-Prussian war 1870–1871 and their relevance for the German ‘military Sonderweg’ debate

Pages 968-993 | Received 28 Aug 2017, Accepted 30 Jan 2018, Published online: 26 Aug 2019

Bibliography

  • Anderson, Margaret L. “A German Way of War?” German History 22, no. 2 (2004): 254–258. doi:10.1191/0266355404gh302xx.
  • Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. “How German Is It?” German History 24, no. 1 (2006): 122–126. doi:10.1191/0266355406gh369xx.
  • Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane. 1870: La France Dans La Guerre. Paris: Armand Colin, 1989.
  • Baranowski, Shelley. Nazi Empire. German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  • Beccaro, Andrea. “Carlo Bianco and Guerra per Bande: An Italian Approach to Irregular Warfare.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 27, no. 1 (2016): 154–178. doi:10.1080/09592318.2016.1122924.
  • Becker, Annette. Les Cicatrices Rouges, 14–18: France Et Belgique Occupées. Paris: Fayard, 2010.
  • Becker, Frank. Bilder Von Krieg Und Nation: Die Einigungskriege in Der Bürgerlichen Öffentlichkeit Deutschlands, 1864–1913. Munich: De Gruyter, 2001.
  • Beckett, Ian. Modern Insurgencies and Counter-Insurgencies: Guerillas and Their Opponents since 1750. London: Routledge, 2001.
  • Bell, David. The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Modern Warfare as We Know It. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2007.
  • Berlit, Bruno, ed. Vor Paris Und an Der Loire 1870 Und 1871. Feldpostbriefe. Kassel: Fischer, 1872.
  • Best, Geoffrey. Humanity in Warfare: The Modern History of International Law of Armed Conflicts. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980.
  • Bizzoni, Achille Antonio. Impressioni Di Un Volontario All’esercito Dei Vosgi. Milan: Sonzogno, 1874.
  • Bönker, Dirk. “A German Way of War? Narratives of German Militarism and Maritime Warfare in World War I.” In Imperial Germany Revisited. Continuing Debates and New Perspectives, edited by Sven Oliver Müller and Cornelius Torp, 227–238. Oxford: Berghahn, 2011.
  • Botzenhart, Manfred. “French Prisoners of War in Germany, 1870–71.” In On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871, edited by Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, 587–595. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  • Bührer, Tanja. Die Kaiserliche Schutztruppe Für Ostafrika. Koloniale Sicherheitspolitik Und Transkulturelle Kriegführung 1885–1918. Munich: Oldenbourg, 2011.
  • Cardinal von Widdern, Georg. Deutsch-Französischer Krieg 1870–71. Der Krieg an Den Rückwärtigen Verbindungen Der Deutschen Heere. Vol. 6. Berlin: Eisenschmidt, 1893–1899.
  • Challener, Richard D. The French Theory of the Nation in Arms 1866–1939. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1955.
  • Chanet, Jean-François. Vers L’armée Nouvelle. République Conservatrice Et Réforme Militaire, 1871–1879. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2006.
  • Chickering, Roger. Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  • Clark, Christopher. “The Wars of Liberation in Prussian Memory: Reflections on the Memoralization of War in Early Nineteenth-Century Germany.” The Journal of Modern History 68, no. 3 (1996): 550–576. doi:10.1086/245342.
  • Crépin, Annie. Défendre La France. Les Français, La Guerre E Le Service Militaire, De La Guerre De Sept Ans À Verdun. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2005.
  • Daase, Christopher, and James W. Davis, eds. Clausewitz on Small War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
  • De Schaepdrijver, Sophie, ed. Military Occupations in First World War Europe. New York, NY: Routledge, 2015.
  • Degler, Carl N. “The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification: The Problem of Comparison.” In On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871, edited by Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, 53–71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  • Dietrich von, Lassberg. Mein Kriegstagebuch Aus Dem Deutsch-französischen Kriege 1870/71. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1906.
  • Dirou, Armel. La Guérilla En 1870. Résistance Et Terreur. Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli, 2014.
  • Echevarria, Antulio J. After Clausewitz. German Military Thinkers before the Great War. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
  • Engel, Ernst. Die Verluste Der Deutschen Armeen an Offizieren Und Mannschaften Im Kriege Gegen Frankreich 1870 Und 1871. Berlin: Verlag des Königlichen Statistischen Bureaus, 1872.
  • Esdaile, Charles, ed. Popular Resistance in the French Wars: Patriots, Partisans and Land Pirates. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  • Etschmann, Wolfgang. “Guerillas Und Franctireurs, 1866 Und 1870.” In Freund Oder Feind?: Kombattanten, Nichtkombattanten Und Zivilisten in Krieg Und Bürgerkrieg Seit Dem 18. Jahrhundert, edited by Erwin Schmidl, 31–44. Frankfurt: Lang, 1995.
  • Favre, Jules. The Government of the National Defence: From the 30th of June to the 31st of October 1870. London: King, 1873.
  • Foley, Robert. German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich Von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  • Forbes, Archibald. My Experiences of the War between France and Germany. Vol. 2. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1871.
  • Ford, Caroline. “Peasants Into Frenchmen Thirty Years After.” French Politics, Culture & Society 27, no. 2 (2009): 84–93. doi:10.3167/fpcs.2009.270205.
  • Forrest, Alan. The Legacy of the French Revolutionary Wars. The Nation-In-Arms in French Republican Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  • Förster, Stig. “Facing ‘people’s War’: Moltke the Elder and Germany’s Military Options after 1871.” Journal of Strategic Studies 10, no. 2 (1987): 209–230. doi:10.1080/01402398708437297.
  • Förster, Stig, ed. Moltke: Von Kabinettskrieg Zum Volkskrieg: Eine Werkauswahl. Bonn: Bouvier, 1992.
  • Foudras, Théodorit. Les Francs-Tireurs De La Sarthe, Journal D’un Commandant. Chalon-sur-Saone: Mulcey, 1872.
  • Frevert, Ute. A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society. Oxford: Berg, 2004.
  • Gerwarth, Robert, and Stephan Malinowski. “Der Holocaust Als ‘kolonialer Genozid’? Europäische Kolonialgewalt Und Nationalsozialistischer Vernichtungskrieg.” Geschichte Und Gesellschaft 33 (2007): 439–466. doi:10.13109/gege.2007.33.3.439.
  • Gillispie, James M. Andersonvilles of the North. The Myths and Realities of Northern Treatment of Civil War Confederate Prisoners. Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2008.
  • Gooch, John. The Italian Army and the First World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  • Gouttman, Alain. La Grande Défaite 1870–1871. Paris: Perrin, 2015.
  • Gumz, Jonathan. “Reframing the Historical Problematic of Insurgency: How the Professional Military Literature Created a New History and Missed the Past.” Journal of Strategic Studies 32, no. 4 (2009): 553–588. doi:10.1080/01402390902986972.
  • Gumz, Jonathan. The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  • Hahlweg, Werner. Guerilla. Krieg Ohne Fronten. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1968.
  • Hantraye, Jacques. Les Cosaques Aux Champs-Elysées: L’occupation De La France Après La Chute De Napoléon. Paris: Belin, 2005.
  • Hartmann, Christian, Johannes Hürter, and Ulrike Jureit, eds. Verbrechen Der Wehrmacht. Bilanz Einer Debatte. Munich: Beck, 2005.
  • Hatley, Paul. “Prolonging the Inevitable: The Franc-Tireur and the German Army in the Franco-German War of 1870–1871.” PhD diss., Kansas State University, 1997.
  • Haynes, Christine. “Remembering and Forgetting the First Modern Occupations of France.” Journal of Modern History 88, no. 3 (2016): 535–571. doi:10.1086/687527.
  • Heuser, Beatrice. “Small Wars in the Age of Clausewitz: The Watershed between Partisan War and People’s War.” Journal of Strategic Studies 33, no. 1 (2010): 139–162. doi:10.1080/01402391003603623.
  • Heuser, Beatrice. The Evolution of Strategy: Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  • Hoenig, Fritz. Der Volkskrieg an Der Loire Im Herbst 1870. Vol. 6. Berlin: Mittler, 1893–1897.
  • Horne, John, and Alan Kramer. German Atrocities 1914. A History of Denial. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
  • Horne, John, and Alan Kramer. “German Atrocities in the First World War: A Response.” German History 24, no. 1 (2006): 118–121. doi:10.1191/0266355406gh367xx.
  • Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War. London: Routledge, 1991.
  • Howard, Michael. “Constraints on War.” In Laws of War. Constraints on Warfare in the Western World, edited by Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos, and Mark R. Shulman, 1–11. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
  • Hull, Isabel. Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.
  • Hull, Isabel. A Scrap of Paper. Breaking and Making International Law during the Great War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014.
  • Jeismann, Michael. Das Vaterland Der Feinde: Studien Zum Nationalen Feindbegriff Und Selbstverständnis in Deutschland Und Frankreich 1792–1918. Stuttgart: DVA, 1992.
  • Johansen, Anja. Soldiers as Police. The French and Prussian Armies and the Policing of Popular Protest, 1889–1914. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.
  • Jones, Marcus. “Fighting ‘this Nation of Liars to the Very End’: The German Army in the Franco-Prussian War, 1870–1871.” In Hybrid Warfare: Fighting Complex Opponents from the Ancient World to the Present, edited by Williamson Murray and Peter R. Mansoor, 171–198. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • Kanter, Sanford. “Defeat 1871: A Study in ‘after-war’.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1972.
  • Kanter, Sanford. “Exposing the Myth of the Franco-Prussian War.” War & Society 4, no. 1 (1986): 13–30. doi:10.1179/106980486790303871.
  • Kauffmann, Jesse. Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2015.
  • Keller, Ulrich. Schuldfragen. Belgischer Untergrundkrieg Und Deutsche Vergeltung Im August 1914. Paderborn: Schöningh, 2017.
  • Kramer, Alan. Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  • Kramer, Alan. “German War Crimes 1914 and 1941. The Question of Continuity.” In Imperial Germany Revisited. Continuing Debates and New Perspectives, edited by Sven Oliver Müller and Cornelius Torp, 239–250. Oxford: Berghahn, 2011.
  • Kramer, Alan, and John Horne. 2012. “Wer Schiesst Hier Aus Dem Hinterhalt?” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, March 1, 2018. https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/massaker-in-belgien-im-ersten-weltkrieg-15472194.html
  • Kühlich, Frank. Die Deutschen Soldaten Im Krieg Von 1870/71: Eine Darstellung Der Situation Und Der Erfahrungen Der Deutschen Soldaten Im Deutsch- Französischen Krieg. Frankfurt: Lang, 1995.
  • Kuß, Susanne. Deutsches Militär Auf Kolonialen Kriegsschauplätzen. Eskalation Von Gewalt Zu Beginn Des 20. Jahrhunderts. Berlin: Links, 2010.
  • Leggiere, Michael V. The Fall of Napoleon. Volume I. The Allied Invasion of France, 1813–1814. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  • Lieb, Peter. “Suppressing Insurgencies in Comparison: The Germans in the Ukraine, 1918, and the British in Mesopotamia, 1920.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 23, no. 4–5 (2012): 627–647. doi:10.1080/09592318.2012.709765.
  • Lieb, Peter. “Der Deutsche Krieg Im Osten Von 1914–1919. Ein Vorläufer Des Vernichtungskriegs?” Vierteljahreshefte Für Zeitgeschichte 65, no. 4 (2017): 465–506. doi:10.1515/vfzg-2017-0029.
  • Lipkes, Jeff. Rehearsals. The German Army in Belgium, August 1914. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007.
  • Liulevicius, Vejas. War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  • Loch, Thorsten, and Markus Vette, eds. Friedrich Clauson Von Kaas. “potsdam Ist Geschlagen”. Briefe Aus Dem Deutsch-Französischen Krieg 1870/71. Freiburg: Rombach, 2016.
  • Löhlein, Ludwig. Feldzug 1870–71. Die Operationen Des Korps Des Generals Von Werder. Berlin: Mittler, 1874.
  • Madley, Benjamin. “From Africa to Auschwitz: How German South West Africa Included Ideas and Methods Adopted and Developed by the Nazis in Eastern Europe.” European History Quarterly 35, no. 3 (2005): 429–464. doi:10.1177/0265691405054218.
  • Mayeur, Jean-Marie. Léon Gambetta. La Patrie E La République. Paris: Fayard, 2008.
  • Mehrkens, Heidi. Statuswechsel: Kriegserfahrung Und Nationale Wahrnehmung Im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg 1870/71. Essen: Klartext, 2008.
  • Meier-Welcker, Hans. “Der Kampf Mit Der Republik.” In Entscheidung 1870. Der Deutsch-Französische Krieg, edited by Ursula von Gersdorff and Wolfgang von Groote, 105–164. Stuttgart: DVA, 1970.
  • Melson, Charles D. “German Counterinsurgency Revisited.” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 14, no. 1 (2011): 1–33.
  • Melson, Charles D. Kleinkrieg: The German Experience with Guerrilla Warfare, from Clausewitz to Hitler. Philadelphia, PA: Casemate, 2016.
  • Messerschmidt, Manfered. “Völkerrecht Und “kriegsnotwendigkeit” in Der Deutschen Militärischen Tradition Seit Den Einigungskriegen.” German Studies Review 6, no. 2 (1983): 237–269. doi:10.2307/1428529.
  • Molis, Robert. Les Francs-Tireurs Et Les Garibaldi. Soldats De La République 1870– 1871 En Bourgogne. Paris: Tirésias, 1995.
  • Münch, Philipp. Bürger in Uniform. Kriegserfahrungen Von Hamburger Turnern 1914 Bis 1918. Freiburg: Rombach, 2009.
  • Nabulsi, Karma. Traditions of War: Occupation, Resistance, and the Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  • Nelson, Robert L. “Ordinary Men’ in the First World War? German Soldiers as Victims and Participants.” Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 3 (2004): 425–435. doi:10.1177/0022009404044448.
  • Nolan, Michael E. The Inverted Mirror: Mythologizing the Enemy in France and Germany, 1898–1914. New York, NY: Berghahn, 2005.
  • Ortholan, Henri. L’Armée De La Loire, 1870–1871. Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli, 2005.
  • Ortholan, Henri. L’Armée De l’Est 1870–1871. Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli, 2009.
  • Parisot, Guillaume. “De La Négociation Comme Instrument D’occupation Pacifiée Et D’exploitation Économique Efficace Pendant La Guerre De 1870–1871.” In Le Temps Des Hommes Doubles: Les Arrangements Face À L’occupation, De La Révolution Française À La Guerre De 1870, edited by Jean-François Chanet, Annie Crépin, and Christian Windler, 279–302. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2013.
  • Pieper, Henning. “The German Approach to Counterinsurgency in the Second World War.” The International History Review 37, no. 3 (2014): 1–12.
  • Pieper, Henning. “From Fighting ‘francs-tireurs’ to Genocide: German Counterinsurgency in the Second World War.” In Insurgencies and Counterinsurgencies. National Styles and Strategic Cultures, edited by Beatrice Heuser and Eitan Shamir, 149–167. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
  • Pöhlmann, Markus. “Das Unentdeckte Land. Kriegsbild Und Zukunftskrieg in Deutschen Militärzeitschriften.” In Vor Dem Sprung Ins Dunkle. Die Militärische Debatte Über Den Krieg Der Zukunft 1880–1914, edited by Stig Förster, 21–131. Paderborn: Schöningh, 2016.
  • Pöhlmann, Markus. “Habent Sua Fata Libelli. Zur Auseinandersetzung Um Das Buch ‘german Atrocities 1914.’” Portal Arbeitskreis Militärgeschichte. Accessed November 20, 2018. http://portal-militaergeschichte.de/http%3A//portal-militaergeschichte.de/poehlmann_habent
  • Porch, Douglas. The March to the Marne. The French Army 1871–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  • Porch, Douglas. “Bugeaud, Gallieni, Lyautey: The Development of French Colonial Warfare.” In Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, edited by Peter Paret, 376–407. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
  • Porch, Douglas. Counterinsurgency. Exposing the Myths of the New Way of War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  • Potempa, Harald. “Jahrbuch Innere Führung 2010. Die Grenzen Des Militärischen.” In Der Kleine Krieg in Der Deutschen Militäpublizistik: Das Militär- Wochenblatt 1871–1900, edited by R. Hammerich Helmut, Uwe Hartmann, and Claus von Rosen, 134–151. Berlin: Miles, 2010.
  • Prusin, Alexander V. Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914–1920. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2005.
  • Rid, Thomas. “The Nineteenth Century Origins of Counter-insurgency Doctrine.” Journal of Strategic Studies 33, no. 5 (2010): 727–758. doi:10.1080/01402390.2010.498259.
  • Rindfleisch, Georg Heinrich. Feldbriefe 1870–71. Göttingen: V&R, 1891.
  • Rink, Martin. “The Partisan’s Metamorphosis: From Freelance Military Entrepreneur to German Freedom Fighter, 1740 to 1815.” War in History 17, no. 1 (2010): 6–36. doi:10.1177/0968344509348291.
  • Rohkrämer, Thomas. “Daily Life at the Front and the Concept of Total War.” In On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871, edited by Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, 497–518. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  • Roth, François. “Occupation Et Libération Des Départments Lorrains.” In La Guerre De 1870/71 Et Ses Conséquences: Actes Du XXe Colloque Historique Franco- Allemand Organisé À Paris 1984–1985, edited by Philippe Levillain and Rainer Riemenschneider, 313–317. Bonn: Bouvier, 1990.
  • Roth, François. La Guerre De 1870. Paris: Fayard, 1990.
  • Scheipers, Sibylle. “Counterinsurgency or Irregular Warfare? Historiography and the Study of ‘small Wars’.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 25, no. 5–6 (2014): 879–899. doi:10.1080/09592318.2014.945281.
  • Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. The Culture of Defeat. On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery. London: Granta, 2003.
  • Schneider, Fernand Thiébaut. “Der Krieg in Französischer Sicht.” In Entscheidung 1870. Der Deutsch-Französische Krieg, edited by Ursula von Gersdorff and Wolfgang von Groote, 165–203. Stuttgart: DVA, 1970.
  • Showalter, Dennis. “From Deterrence to Doomsday Machine: The German Way of War, 1890–1914.” Journal of Military History 64, no. 3 (2000): 679–710. doi:10.2307/120865.
  • Showalter, Dennis. The Wars of German Unification. London: Bloomsbury, 2004.
  • Spraul, Gunter. Der Franktireurkrieg 1914. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 2016.
  • Stone, David. J. A. ‘First Reich’. Inside the German Army during the War with France 1870–71. London: Brassey’s, 2002.
  • Stoneman, Mark. “The Bavarian Army and French Civilians in the War of 1870– 1871: A Cultural Interpretation.” War in History 8, no. 3 (2001): 271–293. doi:10.1177/096834450100800302.
  • Sukstorf, Lothar. Die Problematik Der Logistik Im Deutschen Heer Während Des Deutsch-Französischen Krieges, 1870/71. Frankfurt: Lang, 1994.
  • Tanera, Carl. An Der Loire Und Sarthe. Munich: Beck, 1906.
  • Tison, Stéphane. Comment Sortir De La Guerre? Deuil, Mémoire Et Traumatisme (1870–1940). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2011.
  • Tombs, Robert. The War against Paris 1871. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  • Tombs, Robert. “The Wars against Paris.” In On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871, edited by Stig Förster and Jörg Nagler, 541–564. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  • Toppe, Andreas. Militär Und Kriegsvölkerrecht: Rechtsnorm, Fachdiskurs Und Kriegspraxis in Deutschland 1899–1940. Munich: Oldenbourg, 2008.
  • Varley, Karine. Under the Shadow of Defeat. The War of 1870–71 in French Memory. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  • Watson, Alexander. “’Unheard-of Brutality’ Russian Atrocities against Civilians in East Prussia, 1914–1915.” Journal of Modern History 86, no. 4 (2014): 780–825. doi:10.1086/678919.
  • Wawro, Geofffrey. The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  • Weber, Eugen. Peasants into Frenchmen. The Modernization of Rural France, 1870– 1914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976.
  • Wetzel, David. A Duel of Nations. Germany, France, and the Diplomacy of the War of 1870–1871. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.
  • Wolowski, Ladislas. Campagne De 1870–71. Corps Franc Des Vosges (armée De L’est). Souvenirs. Paris: Chamuel, 1871.
  • Zimmerer, Jürgen. Von Windhuk Nach Auschwitz. Beiträge Zum Verhältnis Von Kolonialismus Und Holocaust. Münster: LIT, 2007.
  • Zuckerman, Larry. The Rape of Belgium: The Untold Story of World War I. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2004.