Bibliography
- Abrahms, Max, and Jochen Mierau. “Leadership Matters: The Effects of Targeted Killings on Militant Group Tactics.” Terrorism and Political Violence 29, no. 5 (2017): 830–851. doi:10.1080/09546553.2015.1069671.
- Ahmed, Liban. 2016. How to Fight Corruption in Somalia. December 7. https://wardheernews.com/how-to-fight-corruption-in-somalia/.
- Ahmed, Zahid Shahab, Bert Jenkins, and Waseem Iftikhar. “Perception of Foreign Drone Strikes by Citizens: The Context of US Drone Strikes in Pakistan.” South Asian Survey 24, no. 2 (2017): 135–157. doi:10.1177/0971523118822442.
- Ajala, Olayinka. “US Drone Base in Agadez: A Security Threat to Niger?” The RUSI Journal 163, no. 5 (2018): 20–27. doi:10.1080/03071847.2018.1552452.
- Akwiri, Joseph, and Katharine Houreld. 2019. Kenya Bomber’s Journey Offers Cautionary Tale of Intelligence Failures. January 31. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-security-bomber-insight/kenya-bombers-journey-offers-cautionary-tale-of-intelligence-failures-idUSKCN1PP1AP.
- Akwiri, Joseph, and Katharine Houreld. 2019. Kenya Bomber’s Journey Offers Cautionary Tale of Intelligence Failures. January 31. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-security-bomber-insight/kenya-bombers-journey-offers-cautionary-tale-of-intelligence-failures-idUSKCN1PP1AP.
- Ali, Shahid, and Amjad Abbas Khan. “Drone Strikes, Logic of Self-defense and Violation of State Sovereignty.” Pakistan Journal of History and Culture 38, no. 2 (2017): 187–206.
- Aloyo, Eamon. “Just Assassinations.” International Theory 5, no. 3 (2013): 347–381. doi:10.1017/S1752971913000237.
- Amnesty International. The Hidden War in Somalia. London: Amnesty International, 2019.
- Aslam, Muhammad W. “A Critical Evaluation of American Drone Strikes in Pakistan: Legality, Legitimacy and Prudence.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 4, no. 3 (2011): 313–329. doi:10.1080/17539153.2011.623397.
- Australian National Security. n.d.. Al-Shabaab. https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/Al-Shabaab.aspx.
- Balthasar, Dominik. State-making in Somalia and Somaliland: Understanding War, Nationalism and State Trajectories as Processes of Institutional and Socio-cognitive Standardization. London: Doctoral dissertation, The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), 2012.
- Barnes, Cedric, and Harun Hassan. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1, no. 2 (2007): 151–160. doi:10.1080/17531050701452382.
- Barnett, Michael, and Raymond Duvall. Power in Global Governance. Vol. 98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
- Barry, Ben. Harsh Lessons: Iraq, Afghanistan and the Changing Character of War. London: Routledge, 2018.
- BBC. 2016. Somalia al-Shabab: US Drone Strike Targets Militant Chief. April 2. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35949675.
- Bergen, Peter, David Sterman, Melissa Salyk-Virk, Alyssa Sims, and Albert Ford. 2019. Drone Strikes: Somalia. https://www.newamerica.org/in-depth/americas-counterterrorism-wars/somalia/.
- Byrne, Max. “Consent and the Use of Force: An Examination of ‘Intervention by Invitation’as a Basis for US Drone Strikes in Pakistan, Somalia and Yemen.” Journal on the Use of Force and International Law 3, no. (1) (2016): 97–125. doi:10.1080/20531702.2015.1135658.
- Cannon, Brendon J. “Foreign State Influence and Somalia’s 2017 Presidential Election: An Analysis.” Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies 18 (2019): 20–50.
- Cannon, Brendon J, and Federico Donelli. “Asymmetric Alliances and High Polarity: Evaluating Regional Security Complexes in the Middle East and Horn of Africa.” Third World Quarterly (2019): 505–24. doi:10.1080/01436597.2019.1693255.
- Cannon, Brendon J, and Hirotaka Fujibayashi. “Security, Structural Factors and Sovereignty: Analysing Reactions to Kenya’s Decision to Close the Dadaab Refugee Camp Complex.” African Security Review 27, no. 1 (2018): 20–41. doi:10.1080/10246029.2017.1408475.
- Cannon, Brendon J., and Wisdom Iyekekpolo. “Explaining Transborder Terrorist Attacks: The Cases of Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab.” African Security 11, no. 4 (2018): 370–396. doi:10.1080/19392206.2018.1560970.
- Cannon, Brendon J, and Dominic R. Pkalya. “Why al-Shabaab Attacks Kenya: Questioning the Narrative Paradigm.” Terrorism and Political Violence 31, no. 4 (2019): 836–852. doi:10.1080/09546553.2017.1290607.
- Cannon, Brendon J, and Ash Rossiter. “Ethiopia, Berbera Port and the Shifting Balance of Power in the Horn of Africa.” Rising Powers Quarterly 2, no. 4 (2017): 7–29.
- Carvin, Stephanie. “Getting Drones Wrong.” The International Journal of Human Rights 19, no. 2 (2015): 127–141. doi:10.1080/13642987.2014.991212.
- Cockburn, Andrew. Kill Chain: The Rise of the High-Tech Assassins. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2015.
- Crisiswatch. 2019. Tracking Conflict Worldwide. June. https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/print?page=3&location%5B0%5D=9&t=CrisisWatch+Database+Filter.
- Cronin, Audrey K. “Why Drones Fail: When Tactics Drive Strategy.” Foreign Affairs 92, no. 4 (2013): 44–54.
- Dear, Keith Patrick. “Beheading the Hydra? Does Killing Terrorist or Insurgent Leaders Work?” Defence Studies 13, no. 3 (2013): 293–337. doi:10.1080/14702436.2013.845383.
- Dörrie, Peter. 2016. “Why Territorial Losses Don’t Weaken Somalia’s Al-Shabab.” World Politics Review (WPR). July 27. https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/19486/why-territorial-losses-don-t-weaken-somalia-s-al-shabab.
- Downes, Chris. “Targeted Killings’ in an Age of Terror: The Legality of the Yemen Strike.” Journal of Conflict and Security Law 9, no. 2 (2004): 277–294. doi:10.1093/jcsl/9.2.277.
- Eastin, Joshua, and Emily Kalah Glade. “Beheading the Hydra: Counterinsurgent Violence and Insurgent Attacks in Iraq.” Terrorism and Political Violence 30, no. 3 (2018): 384–407. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1167688.
- The Economist. 2014. “Pushing It across the Borders.” The Economist. February 10. https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2014/02/10/pushing-it-across-the-borders.
- Etzioni, Amitai. “The Great Drone Debate.” Military Review 93, no. 2 (2013): 2–13.
- EU International Cooperation and Development. 2019. “The European Union Steps up Its Support to Somalia with €200 Million at the London Conferencehttps://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/news-and-events/european-union-steps-its-support-somalia-eu200-million-london-conference_en.
- Fartaag, Abdirazak. Their Own Worst Enemy: How Successive Governments Plundered Somalia’s Public Resources and Why the World Looked On. Nairobi: Fartaag Consulting, 2014. http://fartaagconsulting.com/publications.html.
- Fartaag, Abdirazak. Breaking Point in Somalia: How State Failure Was Financed and by Whom. Nairobi: Fartaag Consulting, 2016. http://fartaagconsulting.com/publications.html.
- Fartaag, Abdirazak, interview by Author. 2019 (January 6).
- Felter, Claire, Jonathan Master, and Mohammed Aly Sergie. 2019. Al-Shabab. January 31. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabab.
- Franke, Ulrike Esther. “Drones, Drone Strikes, and US Policy: The Politics of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.” Parameters 44, no. 1 (2014): 121–130.
- Goldbaum, Christina. 2018. A Trumpian War on Terror that Just Keeps Getting Bigger. September 11. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/09/drone-somalia-al-shabaab-al-qaeda-terrorist-africa-trump/569680/.
- Guido, L. T. C. Joseph. “The American Way of War in Africa: The Case of Niger.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 30, no. (1) (2019): 176–199. doi:10.1080/09592318.2018.1554337.
- Hansen, Stig Jarle. 2019. Somalia Drone Strikes are a Potent Weapon, but Not the Game Changer. February 20. http://theconversation.com/somalia-drone-strikes-are-a-potent-weapon-but-not-the-game-changer-111845.
- Herbst, Jeffrey. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014.
- Hills, Alice. “Security Sector or Security Arena? the Evidence from Somalia.” International Peacekeeping 21, no. 2 (2014): 165–180. doi:10.1080/13533312.2014.910400.
- Hirsch, John L. 2011. “The Black Hawk Down Effect.” Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/08/12/the-black-hawk-down-effect/.
- Houreld, Katharine, and Abdi Sheikh. 2017. Deadly Somalia Blast Reveals Flaws in Intelligence Efforts. October 20. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-attacks/deadly-somalia-blast-reveals-flaws-in-intelligence-efforts-idUSKBN1CP20W.
- Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji. “Building peace from the margins in Somalia: The case for political settlement with Al-Shabaab.” Contemporary Security Policy 39, no. 4 (2018): 512–536.
- International Bar Association. 2017. “The Legality of Armed Drones under International Law.” Background paper by the International Bar Association’s Human Rights Institute, adopted in May 2017, International Bar Association’s Human Rights Institute, 1–56. https://www.ibanet.org/Human_Rights_Institute/council-resolutions.aspx.
- Jamal, Ahmed Rashid. 2013. Identifying Causes of State Failure: The Case of Somalia. August 13. www.atlantic-community.org/-/identifying-causesof-state-failure-the-case-of-somalia.
- Johnston, Patrick B, and Anoop K Sarbahi. “The Impact of US Drone Strikes on Terrorism in Pakistan.” International Studies Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2016): 203–219. doi:10.1093/isq/sqv004.
- Jones, Sam. 2010. “Half of All Food Sent to Somalia Is Stolen, Says UN Report.” The Guardian, March 10. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/10/aid-somalia-stolen-un-report.
- Jordan, Jenna. “When Heads Roll: Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Decapitation.” Security Studies 18, no. 4 (2009): 719–755. doi:10.1080/09636410903369068.
- Jordan, Jenna. “Attacking the Leader, Missing the Mark: Why Terrorist Groups Survive Decapitation Strikes.” Security Studies 38, no. 4 (2014): 7–38.
- Jowell, Marco. “Jowell, M. (2018). The Unintended Consequences of Foreign Military Assistance in Africa: An Analysis of Peacekeeping Training in Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 12, no. 1 (2018): 102–119. doi:10.1080/17531055.2017.1418187.
- Kachroo, Rohit, and Keir Simmons. 2013. “After Decades as ‘World’s Most Dangerous’ Place, Has Somalia Turned the Corner?” NBC News. May 11. https://wardheernews.com/after-decades-as-worlds-most-dangerous-place-has-somalia-turned-the-corner/.
- Keohane, Robert O., and Joseph S. Nye. “Power and Interdependence.” Survival 15, no. 4 (1973): 158–165. doi:10.1080/00396337308441409.
- Keynan, Mohamed. 2018. How Somalia’s Government Is Taking Big Strides to Stability. June 26. https://www.centreforpublicimpact.org/somalia-government-stability/.
- Legacy Center for Peace and Transparency. Overview of Corruption, Underlying Causes, and Its Impacts in Somalia. Maplewood, MN: Legacy Center for Peace and Transparency, 2016.
- Lehrke, Jesse Paul, and Rahel Schomaker. “Kill, Capture, or Defend? the Effectiveness of Specific and General Counterterrorism Tactics against the Global Threats of the Post-9/11 Era.” Security Studies 25, no. 4 (2016): 729–762. doi:10.1080/09636412.2016.1220199.
- Macdonald, Julia, and Jacquelyn Schneider. “Presidential Risk Orientation and Force Employment Decisions: The Case of Unmanned Weaponry.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 61, no. 3 (2017): 511–536. doi:10.1177/0022002715590874.
- Mahmood, Faiqa. “The Efficacy of US Drone Strikes in Pakistan: The Long View.” Yale Journal of International Affairs (2016). http//yalejournal.org/article_post
- Marqaati. Somalia State of Accountability 2016, 1–15. Mogadishu: Marqaati, 2017. https://marqaati.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Marqaati-2016-Corruption-Report.pdf.
- Maruf, Harun. 2019. Somalia Assesses Al-Shabab Moles’ Infiltration of Government. August 15. https://www.voanews.com/africa/somalia-assesses-al-shabab-moles-infiltration-government.
- Mazhar, Ummad. “Do Remotely Piloted Aerial Vehicles Make Terrorism More Costly for Terrorists? Empirical Evidence from Pakistan.” International Journal of Conflict Management 27, no. 4 (2016): 470–486. doi:10.1108/IJCMA-06-2015-0035.
- McNeal, Gregory S. “Are Targeted Killings Unlawful? A Case Study in Empirical Claims without Empirical Evidence.” In Targeted Killings: Law and Morality in an Asymmetrical World, edited by Jens David Ohlin, Andrew Altman, and Claire Finkelstein, 326–346. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
- Menkhaus, Ken. “Managing Risk in Ungoverned Space: Local and International Actors in Somalia.” SAIS Review of International Affairs 36, no.1 (2016): 109–120. Johns Hopkins University Press. doi:10.1353/sais.2016.0008.
- Michel, Holland, and Dan Gettinger. “Drone Year in Review: 2017.” Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: Center for the Study of the Drone at Bard College, 1–21. 2018. http//dronecenter.org
- Ministry of Planning, Investment and Development. Aid Flows in Somalia: Analysis of Aid Flow Data. Mogadishu: Somalia Ministry of Planning, Investment and Economic Development, 2018.
- Mogadishu-based Businessperson, Interview by Author. 2019. (May 7).
- Mogadishu-based Official, Interview by Author. 2019. (April 4).
- Morgan, Wesley. 2017. U.S. Military Builds up in Land of ‘Black Hawk Down’ Disaster. November 19. https://www.politico.com/story/2017/11/19/troops-somalia-military-buildup-247668.
- Muia, Joseph. 2019. Somali President Farmajo Renounces His U.S. Citizenship. August 2. https://citizentv.co.ke/news/somali-president-farmajo-renounces-his-u-s-citizenship-267209/.
- Nissenbaum, Dion. 2017. “U.S. Forces Get More Freedom to Strike Militants in Somalia.” The Wall Street Journal, March 30. https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-forces-get-more-freedom-to-strike-militants-in-somalia-1490924860.
- Pashakhanlou, Arash Heydarian. “Air Power in Humanitarian Intervention: Kosovo and Libya in Comparative Perspective.” Defence Studies 18, no. 1 (2018): 39–57. doi:10.1080/14702436.2017.1420420.
- Pratt, Simon Frankel. 2018. US Killing by Drone: Continuity and Escalation. December 11. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/us-killing-drone-continuity-and-escalation.
- Price, Bryan C. “Targeting Top Terrorists: How Leadership Decapitation Contributes to Counterterrorism.” International Security 36, no. 4 (2012): 9–46. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00075.
- Purkiss, Jessica, and Abigail Fielding-Smith. 2018. Somalia: Reported US Actions 2018. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/drone-war/data/somalia-reported-us-actions-2018#strike-27118.
- Reeder, Bryce W., and John R. Smith. “US Strikes in Somalia and Targeted Civilian Killings by Al-Shabaab: An Empirical Investigation.” Foreign Policy Analysis 15, no. 4 (2019): 589–603. doi:10.1093/fpa/orz008.
- Renic, Neil C. “Justified Killing in an Age of Radically Asymmetric Warfare.” European Journal of International Relations 25, no. 2 (2018): 408–430. doi:10.1177/1354066118786776.
- Reno, William. “The Politics of Security Assistance in the Horn of Africa.” Defence Studies 18, no. 4 (2018): 498–513. doi:10.1080/14702436.2018.1463819.
- Reno, William. “The Dilemmas of Security Assistance to a Failed State: Lessons from Somalia.” In Before Military Intervention: Upstream Stabilisation in Theory and Practice, edited by Timothy Clark and Robert Johnson, 53–77. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
- Rinehart, Christine S. Drones and Targeted Killing in the Middle East and Africa: An Appraisal of American Counterterrorism Policies. Washington DC: Lexington Books, 2016.
- Rossiter, Ash. “Drone Usage by Militant Groups: Exploring Variation in Adoption.” Defense & Security Analysis 34, no. 2 (2018): 113–126. doi:10.1080/14751798.2018.1478183.
- Rossiter, Ash, and Brendon J Cannon. “Re-examining The” Base”: The Political and Security Dimensions of Turkey’s Military Presence in Somalia.” Insight Turkey 21, no. 1 (2019): 167–188. doi:10.25253/99.2019211.09.
- Runkle, Benjamin. 2013. “The Lost Lessons of ‘Black Hawk Down’.” War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2013/10/the-lost-lessons-of-black-hawk-down/.
- Samatar, Abdi Ismail. Africa’s First Democrats: Somalia’s Aden A. Osman and Abdirazak H. Hussen. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016.
- Samatar, Ahmed I. 2018. Somaliland’s Stakes in a Fast Changing Horn of Africa. December 5. https://somalilandchronicle.com/2018/12/05/somalilands-stakes-in-a-fast-changing-horn-of-africa-professor-ahmed-i-samatar/.
- Savage, Charlie. 2017. Will Congress Ever Limit the Forever-Expanding 9/11 War? October 28. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/28/us/politics/aumf-congress-niger.html.
- Security Assistance Monitor. 2019. Somalia. https://securityassistance.org/data/program/military/Somalia/.
- Shah, Aqil. “Do U.S. Drone Strikes Cause Blowback? Evidence from Pakistan and Beyond.” International Security 42, no. 4 (2018): 47–84. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00312.
- Sheikh, Abdi, and Feisal Omar. 2018. Exclusive: Weapons Stolen from UAE Training Facility in Somalia, Sold on Open Market. April 25. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-arms/weapons-stolen-from-uae-training-facility-in-somalia-sold-on-open-market-idUSKBN1HW26I.
- Smith, Megan, and James Igoe Walsh. “Do Drone Strikes Degrade Al Qaeda? Evidence from Propaganda Output.” Terrorism and Political Violence 25, no. 2 (2013): 311–327. doi:10.1080/09546553.2012.664011.
- Sperber, Amanda. 2019. Inside the Secretive US Air Campaign in Somalia. February 7. https://www.thenation.com/article/somalia-secret-air-campaign/.
- START, National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. 2018. Global Terrorism Database [Data File]. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd.
- Strawser, Bradley Jay. “Moral Predators: The Duty to Employ Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles.” Journal of Military Ethics 9, no. 4 (2010): 342–368. doi:10.1080/15027570.2010.536403.
- Transparency International. 2019. 2018 Corruptions Perception Index. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018.
- Turse, Nick. 2019. Pentagon Document Shows U.S. Knew of “Credible” Reports of Civilian Casualties after Its Attacks in Somalia. July 10. https://theintercept.com/2019/07/10/pentagon-airstrikes-civilian-casualties-somalia/.
- U.S. Africa Command Public Affairs. U.S. Conducts Airstrike in Support of the Federal Government of Somalia. Stuttgart: AFRICOM, 2018. https://www.africom.mil/media-room/pressrelease/31094/u-s-conducts-airstrike-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia.
- U.S. Department of State. 2018. “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Somalia.” Washington, DC. https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/somalia/.
- United Nations. Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2111 (2013): Somalia S/2014/726. New York: UN General Assembly, 2014.
- Vandiver, John. 2019. US Helps Somali Commando Force Grow from Battalion to Brigade. March 22. https://www.stripes.com/news/us-helps-somali-commando-force-grow-from-battalion-to-brigade-1.573794.
- Vilmer, Jean-Baptiste Jeangène. 2017. “The French Turn to Armed Drones.” War on the Rocks, September 22.
- Vlassenroot, Koen, Sandrine Perrot, and Jeroen Cuvelier. “Doing Business Out of War. An Analysis of the UPDF’s Presence in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 6, no. 1 (2012): 2–21. doi:10.1080/17531055.2012.664701.
- Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2010.
- Williams, Paul D. Fighting for Peace in Somalia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
- Williams, Paul D. 2017. “Paying for AMISOM: Are Politics and Bureaucracy Undermining the AU’s Largest Peace Operation?” IPI Global Observatory, January 11. https://theglobalobservatory.org/2017/01/amisom-african-union-peacekeeping-financing/.
- Williams, Paul D. “Joining AMISOM: Why Six African States Contributed Troops to the African Union Mission in Somalia.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 12, no. 1 (2018): 172–192. doi:10.1080/17531055.2018.1418159.
- Williams, Paul D. “Subduing al-Shabaab: The Somalia Model of Counterterrorism and Its Limits.” The Washington Quarterly 41, no. 2 (2018): 95–111. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2018.1484227.
- Wilner, Alex. “Targeted Killings in Afghanistan: Measuring Coercion and Deterrence in Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 33, no. 4 (2010): 307–329. doi:10.1080/10576100903582543.
- Xinhua. 2019. “AMISOM Commits to Peaceful 2020/21 Polls in Somalia.” Xinhua. November 30. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-11/30/c_138595814.htm.