Toxic effects of alcohol on brain cells and alternative mechanisms of brain damage in alcoholism

REFERENCES

• Acker W. Objective psychological changes in alcoholics after the withdrawal of alcohol. Brit. Med. Bull. 1982; 38: 95–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sumner B.E.H., Watson W.E. Retraction and expansion of the dendritic tree of motor neurones of adult rats produced in vivo. Nature 1971; 233: 273–275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sumner B.E.H. A quantitative analysis of bountons with different types of synapses in normal and injured hypoglossal nuclei. Expt. Neurol. 1975; 49: 406–417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin V.A., Fernstermacher J.D., Patlack C.S. Sucrose and inulin space measurements of cerebral cortex in four mammalian species. Amer. J. Physiol. 1970; 219: 1528–1533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lajtha A., Latzkovits L., Toth J. Comparison of turnover rates of protein of the brain, liver and kidney in mouse in vivo following long term labelling. Biochim. biophys. Acta. 1976; 425: 511–520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Austin L., Lowry O.H., Brown J.G., Carter J.G. The turnover of protein in discrete areas of rat brain. Biochem. J. 1972; 126: 351–359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedman G.L., Austin L., Langford C.J. Protein turnover in brain during the development of alcohol dependence. Neuroscience Letters 1982; 28: 93–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loh R.H., Harris R.A. Alterations of macromolecule biosynthesis after chronic administration of opiates and ethanol. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1977; 85B: 65–86
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McClain C.J., Zieve L., Doizaki W.M., Gilberstradt S., Onstad G.R. Blood methanethiol in alcoholic liver disease with and without hepatic encephalopathy. Gut 1980; 21: 318–323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox J.H., Ramsway R.G., Huckman M.S., Proske A.E. Cerebral ventricular enlargement: chronic alcoholics examined by computerized tomography. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 1976; 236: 365–368
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issa F.G., Sullivan C.E. Alcohol, snoring and sleep apnoea. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. 1982; 45: 353–359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins W.J., Peters T.J. The subcellular localisation of aldehyde dehydrogenase in human liver. Clin. Sci. 1978; 55: 11P–11P
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlen P.L., Wilkinson D.A. Alcoholic brain damage and reversible deficits. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. Suppl. 1980; 286: 103–118
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinz E.R., Martinez J., Haenggeli A. Reversibility of cerebral atrophy in anorexia nervosa and Cushing's syndrom. J. Comp. Ass. Tomography 1977; 1: 415–418
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman H., Borg S., Hindmarch T., Idestrom C.M., Mutzell S. Computed tomography of the brain and neuropsychological assessment of male alcoholic patients and a random sample from the general male population. Acta. Psychiatr. Scand. Suppl. 1980; 286: 77–78
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ron M.A., Acker W., Lishman W.A. Morphological abnormalities in the brains of chronic alcoholics — a clinical, psychological and computerized axial tomographic study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. Suppl. 1980; 286: 41–46
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lusins J., Zimberg S., Smokler H., Gurley K. Alcoholism and cerebral atrophy: a study of 50 patients with CT scan and psychologic testing. Alcoholism (NY) 1980; 4: 406–411
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroll P., Seigel R., O'Neill B., Edwards R.P. Cerebral cortical atrophy in alcoholic man. J. Clin. Psychiatr. 1980; 41: 417–421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neubuerger K.T. The changing neuropathologic picture of chronic alcoholism. Archiv. Pathol. 1957; 63: 1–6
   Google Scholar
• Harper C. Wernicke's encephalopathy: a more common disease than realized. A neuropathological study of 51 cases. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. 1979; 42: 226–231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victor M. The Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, P.J. Vinken, G.W. Bruyn, 1976; 28: 243–270, Chapt. 9. In
   Google Scholar
• Victor M., Adams R.S., Collins G.H. The Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome. Davis, Philadelphia 1971
   Google Scholar
• Lynch M.J.G. Brain lesions in chronic alcoholism. Arch. Pathol. 1960; 69: 342–353
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Courville C.B. Effects of alcohol on the nervous system of man. San Lucas Press, Los Angeles 1966
   Google Scholar
• Morel F. Une forme anatomo-clinique particuliere de l'alcoolisme chronique: sclerose corticale laminaire alcoolique. Rev. Neurol. 1939; 71: 380–388
   Google Scholar
• Delay J., Brion S., Escourelle R., Sanchez A. Rapports entre la degenerescence au calleux de Marchiafava — Bignami et la sclerose laminaire corticale de Morel. Encephale 1959; 48: 281–312
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dreyfus P.M. Amblyopia and other neurological disorders associated with chronic alcoholism. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, P.J. Vinkin, G.W. Bruyn, 1976; 28: 331–347, Chapt. 13. In
   Google Scholar
• Rockel A.J., Hiorns R.W., Powell T.P.S. The basic uniformity in structure of the neocortex. Brain 1980; 103: 221–244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson G., Tomlinson B.E., Gibson P.H. Cell counts in human cerebral cortex in normal adults throughout life using an image analysing computer. J. Neurol. Sci. 1980; 46: 113–136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips S.C., Cragg B.G., Singh S.C. The short term toxicity of ethanol to neurons in rat cerebral cortex tested by topical application in vivo, and a note on a problem in estimating ethanol concentrations in tissue. J. Neurol. Sci. 1981; 49: 353–361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington R.C., Knisely M.H. Experiments aimed at separating the mechanical circulatory effects of ethanol from specific chemical effects. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1973; 215: 356–363
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seil F.J., Leiman A.L., Herman M.M., Fisak R.A. Direct effects of ethanol on central nervous system cultures: an electrophysiological and morphological study. Expt. Neurol. 1977; 55: 390–404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eranko L., Eranko O., Nikkinen A. Effect of ethyl alcohol on sympathetic nerve cells in cultures. Med. Biol. 1977; 55: 277–283
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillips S.C., Cragg B.G. Neural degeneration and cerebrovascular leakage in alcohol treated rats. Proc. Aust. Physiol. Pharmacol. Soc. 1982b; 13: 177P–177P
   Google Scholar
• Riley J., Walker D.W. Morphological alterations in hippocampus after long-term alcohol consumption in mice. Science 1978; 201: 646–648
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee K., Dunwiddie T., Deitrich R., Lynch G., Hoffer B. Chronic ethanol consumption and hippocampal neuron dendritic spines: a morphometric and physiological analysis. Expt. Neurol. 1981; 71: 541–549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire M. Effects of dark rearing on dendritic spines in layer IV of the mouse visual cortex. A quantitative electron microscopical study. J. Anat. (Lond.) 1978; 126: 193–201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valverde F. Rate and extent of recovery from dark rearing in the visual cortex of mouse. Brain Res. 1971; 33: 1–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Harreveld A., Fifkova E. Swelling of dendritic spines in the fascia dentata after stimulation of the perforant fibers as a mechanism of post-tetanic potentiation. Expt. Neurol. 1975; 49: 736–749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fifkova E., Van Harreveld A. Long-lasting morphological changes in dendritic spines of dentate granular cells following stimulation of the enhorhinal area. J. Neurocytol. 1977; 6: 211–230
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlen P.L., Gurevich N., Durand D. Ethanol in low doses augments calcium-mediated mechanisms measured intracellularly in hippocampal neurons. Science 1982; 215: 306–309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker D.W., Barnes D.E., Zornetzer S.F., Hunter B.E., Kubanis P. Neuronal loss in the hippocampus induced by prolonged ethanol consumption in rats. Science 1980; 209: 711–713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhar M.J., Taylor N., Wamsley J.K., Hulme E.C., Birdsall N.J.M. Muscarinic cholinergic receptor localization in brain by electron microscopic autoradiography. Brain Res. 1981; 216: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotter A., Birdsall N.J.M., Burgen A.S.V., Field P.M., Raisman G. Axotomy causes loss of muscarinic receptors and loss of synaptic contacts in the hypoglossal nucleus. Nature 1977; 266: 734–735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt W.A., Dalton T.K. Neurotransmitter-receptor binding in various brain regions in ethanol dependent rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1981; 14: 733–739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabakoff B., Munoz-Marcus M., Fields J.Z. Chronic ethanol feeding produces an increase in muscarinic cholinergic receptors in mouse brain. Life Science 1979; 25: 2173–2180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabin R.A., Wolfe B.B., Dibner M.D., Zahniser N.R., Melchior C., Molinoff P.B. Effects of ethanol administration and withdrawal on neurotransmitter receptor systems in C57 mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 1980; 213: 491–496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaelis E.K., Mulvaney M.J., Freed W.J. Effects of acute and chronic ethanol intake on synaptosomal glutamate binding activity. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1978; 27: 1685–1691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freund G. Benzodiazepine receptor loss in brains of mice after chronic alcohol consumption. Life Sciences 1980; 27: 987–992
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karobath M., Rogers J., Bloom P.E. Benzodiazepine receptors remain unchanged after chronic ethanol administration. Neuropharmacol. 1980; 19: 125–128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster W.S., Walsh D.A., Lipson A.H., McEwen S.E. Teratogenesis after acute alcohol exposure in inbred and outbred mice. Neurobehav. Toxicol. 1980; 2: 227–234
   Google Scholar
• Sulik K.K., Johnston M.C., Webb M.A. Fetal alcohol syndrome: embryogenesis in a mouse model. Science 1981; 214: 936–938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veghelyi P.V., Osztovics M., Kardos G., Leisztner L., Szaszovsky E., Igali S., Imrei J. The fetal alcohol syndrome: symptoms and pathogenesis. Acta Paed. Acad. Scient. Hung. 1978; 19: 171–189
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lambert G.H., Papp L.A., Nishiura B. Disulfiram and the fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediat. Res. 1980; 14: 586–586
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer-Moffett C., Altman J. The effect of ethanol chronically administered to preweanling rats on cerebellar development: A morphological study. Brain Res. 1977; 114: 249–268
   Google Scholar
• Anker R.L. Leucocytes as a marker of experimental neural degeneration in perinatal cats. Expt. Neurol. 1975; 49: 601–605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips S.C., Cragg B.G. A change in susceptibility of rat cerebellar Purkinje cells to damage by alcohol during foetal, neonatal and adult life. Neuropath. App. Neurobiol. 1982a; 8: 217–231
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson M. Developmental Neurobiology. Plenum Press, New York 1978
   Google Scholar
• Purrello F., Vigneri R., Clawson G.A., Goldfine I.D. Insulin stimulation of nucleoside triphosphatase activity in isolated nuclear envelopes. Sciences 1982; 216: 1005–1007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlaepfer W.W., Micko S. Calcium-dependent alterations of neurofilament proteins of rat peripheral nerve. J. Neurochem. 1979; 32: 211–219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledig M., M'Paria J.R., Mandel P. Superoxide dismutase activity in rat brain during acute and chronic alcohol intoxication. Neurochem. Res. 1981; 6: 385–390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes D.E., Walker D.W. Prenatal ethanol exposure permanently reduces the number of pyramidal neurons in rat hippocampus. Develop. Brain Res. 1981; 1: 333–340
   Google Scholar
• Davies D.L., Smith D.E. A Golgi study of mouse hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons following perinatal ethanol exposure. Neuroscience Letters 1981; 26: 49–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer R.P., Scheibedl A.B. Morphologic evidence for a delay of neuronal maturation in fetal alcohol exposure. Expt. Neurol. 1981; 74: 587–596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Thiel D.H., Gavaler J.S., Cobb C.F., Sherins R.J., Lester R. Alcohol induced testicular atrophy in the adult male rat. Endocrinol. 1979; 105: 888–895
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka H., Suzuki N., Arima M. Experimental studies on the influence of male alcoholism on fetal development. Brain Dev 1982; 4: 1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majumdar S.K., Shaw G.K., Thomson A.D. Vitamin utilization status in chronic alcoholics. Internal. J. Vitamin Nutrit. Res. 1981; 51: 54–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinschmidt-De Masters B.K., Norenberg M.D. Rapid correction of hyponatremia causes demyelination: relation to central pontine myelinolysis. Science 1981; 211: 1068–1070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins G.H., Converse W.K. Cerebellar degeneration in thiamine-deficient rats. Amer. J. Pathol. 1970; 58: 219–232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korsten M.A., Matsuzaki S., Fleinman L., Leiben C.S. High blood acetaldehyde levels after ethanol administration. New Eng. J. Med. 1975; 292: 386–389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majchrowicz E., Mendelson J.H. Blood concentrations of acetaldehyde and ethanol in chronic alcoholics. Science 1970; 168: 1100–1102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westcott J.Y., Weiner H., Schultz J., Myers R.D. In vivo acetaldehyde in the brain of the rat treated with ethanol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1980; 29: 411–417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stowell A.R., Greenway R.M., Batt R.D. Acetaldehyde formation during deproteinization of human blood samples containing ethanol. Biochem. Med. 1977; 18: 392–401
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillips S.C. The toxicity to rat cerebral cortex of topical applications of acetaldehyde, ammonia or bilirubin. Neuropath. Appl. Neurobiol. 1981; 7: 205–216
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar