The epidemiology of acute encephalitis

REFERENCES

• Arribas , J. R. , Storch , G. A. , Clifford , D. B. and Tselis , A. C. 1996 . Cytomegalovirus encephalitis . Annals of Internal Medicine , 125 : 577 – 587 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aygun , A. D. , Kabakus , N. , Celik , I. , Turgut , M. , Yoldas , T. , Gok , U. and Guler , R. 2001 . Long–term neurological outcome of acute encephalitis . Journal of Tropical Pediatrics , 47 ( 4 ) : 243 – 247 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Booss , J. and Esiri , M. M. 2003 . Viral encephalitis in humans , Washington, DC : American Society for Microbiology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , G. L. , Marfin , A. A. , Lanciotti , R. S. and Gubler , D. J. 2002 . West Nile virus . Lancet Infectious Diseases , 2 : 519 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadha , M. S. , Arankalle , V. A. , Jadi , R. S. , Joshi , M. V. , Thakare , J. P. , Mahadev , P. V. M. and Mishra , A. C. 2005 . An outbreak of Chandipura virus encephalitis in the eastern districts of Gujarat state, India . American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 73 : 566 – 570 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee , P. 2005 . Japanese encephalitis: Outbreak in India . Lancet Neurology , 4 : 700
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cinque , P. , Cleator , G. M. , Weber , T. , Monteyne , P. , Sindic , C. J. and van Loon , A. M. 1996 . The role of laboratory investigation in the diagnosis and management of patients with suspected herpes simplex encephalitis: A consensus report . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 61 : 339 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cizman , M. and Jazbec , J. 1993 . Aetiology of acute encephalitis in childhood in Slovenia . Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal , 12 : 903 – 908 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csango , P. A. , Blakstad , E. , Kirtz , G. C. , Pedersen , J. E. and Czettel , B. 2004 . Tick-borne encephalitis in southern Norway . Emerging Infectious Diseases , 10 ( 3 ) : 533 – 534 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dale , R. C. , Church , A. J. , Surtees , R. A. H. , Lees , A. J. , Adcock , J. E. , Harding , B. , Neville , B. G. R. and Giovannoni , G. 2004 . Encephalitis lethargica syndrome: 20 new cases and evidence of basal ganglia autoimmunity . Brain , 127 : 21 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies , N. W. S. , Sharief , M. K. and Howard , R. S. 2006 . Infection-associated encephalopathies: Their investigation, diagnosis and treatment . Journal of Neurology , 253 : 833 – 845 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davison , K. L. , Crowcroft , N. S. , Ramsay , M. E. , Brown , D. W. G. and Andrews , N. J. 2003 . Viral encephalitis in England, 1989–1998: What did we miss? . Emerging Infectious Diseases , 9 : 234 – 240 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• deJong , M. D. , Cam , B. V. , Qui , P. T. , Hien , V. M. , Thanh , T. T. , Hue , N. B. , Beld , M. , Phuong , L. T. , Khanh , T. H. , Chau , N. V. V. , Hien , T. T. , Ha , D. Q. and Farrar , J. 2005 . Fatal avian influenza A (H5N1) in a child presenting with diarrhea followed by coma . New England Journal of Medicine , 352 : 686 – 691 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dewhurst , S. 2004 . Human herpesvirus type 6 and human herpesvirus type 7 infections of the central nervous system . Herpes , 11 : 105A – 111A .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glaser , C. A. , Gilliam , S. , Schnurr , D. , Forghani , B. , Honarmand , S. , Khetsuriani , N. , Fischer , N. , Cossen , C. K. and Anderson , L. J. 2003 . In search of encephalitis etiologies – diagnostic challenges in the California encephalitis project, 1998–2000 . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 36 ( 6 ) : 731 – 742 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffiths , P. 2004 . Cytomegalovirus infection of the central nervous system . Herpes , 11 : 95A – 104A .
   Google Scholar
• Guleria , R. , Nisar , N. , Chawla , T. C. and Biswas , N. R. 2004 . Mycoplasma pneumoniae and central nervous system complications: A review . Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine , 146 : 55 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Gunther , G. , Haglund , M. , Lindqvist , L. , Forsgren , M. and Skoldenberg , B. 2005 . Tick-borne encephalitis in Sweden in relation to aseptic meningo-encephalitis of other etiology: A prospective study of clinical course and outcome . Journal of Neurology , 244 : 230 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Heinz , F. X. and Kunz , C. 2004 . Tick-borne encephalitis and the impact of vaccination . Archives of Virology Supplement , 18 : 201 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Hokkanen , L. and Launes , J. 1997 . Cognitive recovery instead of decline after acute encephalitis: A prospective follow up study . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 63 ( 2 ) : 222 – 227 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hsu , V. P. , Hossein , M. J. , Parashar , U. D. , Ali , M. M. , Ksiazek , T. G. , Kuzmin , I. , Niezgoda , N. , Rupprecht , C. , Bresee , J. and Breiman , R. F. 2004 . Nipah virus encephalitis reemergence, Bangladesh . Emerging Infectious Diseases , 10 ( 12 ) : 2082 – 2087 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacson , E. , Glaser , C. A. , Forghani , B. , Amad , Z. , Wallace , M. , Armstrong , R. W. , Exner , M. M. and Schmid , S. 2005 . Evidence of human herpesvirus 6 infection in 4 immunocompetent patients with encephalitis . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 40 : 890 – 893 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffery , K. J. , Read , S. J. , Peto , T. E. , Mayon-White , R. T. and Bangham , C. R. 1997 . Diagnosis of viral infections of the central nervous system: Clinical interpretation of PCR results . Lancet , 349 : 1256
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson , R. T. 1996 . Acute encephalitis . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 23 : 219 – 226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khetsuriani , N. , Holman , R. C. and Anderson , L. J. 2002 . Burden of encephalitis-associated hospitalizations in the United States, 1988–1997 . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 35 : 175 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klapper , P. E. and Cleator , G. M. 1998 . European guidelines for diagnosis and management of patients with suspected herpes simplex encephalitis . Clinical Microbiology and Infection , 4 ( 4 ) : 178 – 180 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kolski , H. , Ford-Jones , L. , Richardson , S. , Petric , M. , Nelson , S. , Jamieson , F. , Blaser , S. , Gold , R. , Otsubo , H. , Huerter , H. and MacGregor , D. 1997 . Etiology of acute childhood encephalitis at the hospital for sick children, Toronto, 1994–1995 . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 26 : 398 – 409 .
   Google Scholar
• Koskiniemi , M. , Rantalaiho , T. , Piiparinen , H. , von Bonsdorff , C. H. , Fakkila , M. , Jarvinen , A. , Koskiniemi , S. , Kinnunen , E. , Mannonen , L. , Muttilainen , M. , Linnavuory , K. , Porras , J. , Puolakkainen , M. , Raiha , K. , Salonen , E. , Ukkonen , P. , Vaheri , A. , Valtonen , V. and The Study Group . 2001 . Infections of the central nervous system of suspected viral origin: a collaborative study from Finland . Journal of NeuroVirology , 7 : 400 – 408 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koskiniemi , M. and Vaheri , A. 1989 . Effect of measles, mumps, rubella vaccination on pattern of encephalitis in children . Lancet , 1 : 31 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , R. , Mathur , A. , Singh , K. B. , Sitholey , P. , Prasad , M. , Shukla , R. , Agarwal , S. P. and Arockiasamy , J. 1993 . Clinical sequelae of Japanese encephalitis in children . Indian Journal of Medical Research , 97 : 9 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunze , U. , Asokliene , L. , Busse , A. , Chmelik , V. , Heinz , F. X. , Hingst , V. , Kaiser , R. , Kraigher , A. and Krech , T. 2004 . Tick borne encephalitis in childhood: Conference report and consensus of the International Scientific Working Group on tick-borne encephalitis (ISW-TBE) . Vaccine , 23 : 729 – 731 .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , T. , Tsai , C. , Yuan , C. , Wei , C. , Tsao , W. , Lee , R. , Cheih , S. , Huang , I. and Chen , K. 2003 . Encephalitis in Taiwan: A prospective hospital-based study . Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases , 56 : 193 – 199 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewis , P. and Glaser , C. A. 2005 . Encephalitis . Pediatric Reviews , 26 : 353 – 363 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackenzie , J. S. , Gubler , D. J. and Petersen , L. R. 2004 . Emerging flaviviruses: The spread and resurgence of Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and dengue viruses . Nature Medicine , 10 ( 12 ) : 98 – 109 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrath , N. , Anderson , N. E. , Croxson , M. C. and Powell , K. F. 1997 . Herpes simplex encephalitis treated with acyclovir: Diagnosis and long term outcome . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 63 : 321 – 326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McJunkin , J. E. , de los Reyes , E. C. , Irazuzta , J. E. , Caceres , M. J. , Khan , R. R. , Minnich , L. L. , Fu , K. D. , Lovett , G. D. , Tsai , T. and Thompson , A. 2001 . La Crosse encephalitis in children . New England Journal of Medicine , 345 : 148 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nicolosi , A. , Hauser , W. A. , Beghi , E. and Kurland , L. T. 1986 . Epidemiology of central nervous system infections in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1950–1981 . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 154 : 399 – 408 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prober , C. 2005 . Sixth disease and the ubiquity of human herpesviruses . New England Journal of Medicine , 352 ( 8 ) : 753 – 755 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prowse , C. V. 2003 . An ABC for West Nile virus . Transfusion Medicine , 13 : 1 – 7 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rantala , H. and Uhari , M. 1989 . Occurrence of childhood encephalitis: A population-based study . Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal , 8 : 426 – 430 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao , B. L. , Basu , A. , Wairagkar , N. S. , Gore , M. M. , Arankalle , V. A. , Thakare , J. P. , Jadi , R. S. , Rao , K. and Mishra , A. 2004 . A large outbreak of acute encephalitis with high fatality rate in children in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2003, associated with Chandipura virus . Lancet , 364 : 869 – 874 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rendi-Wagner , P. , Kundi , M. , Zent , O. , Banzhoff , A. , Jaehnig , P. , Stemberger , R. , Dvorak , G. , Grumbeck , E. , Laaber , B. and Kollaritsch , H. 2004 . Immunogenicity and safety of a booster vaccination against tick-borne encephalitis more than 3 years following the last immunisation . Vaccine , 23 : 427 – 434 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roos , K. L. 1999 . Encephalitis . Neurology Clinics , 17 : 813 – 833 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rotbart , H. A. , Webster , A. D. and Pleconaril Treatment Registry Group . 2001 . Treatment of potentially life-threatening enterovirus infections with pleconaril . Clinical Infectious Diseases , [On-line]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rust , R. S. , Thompson , W. H. , Matthews , C. G. , Beaty , B. J. and Chun , R. W. 1999 . La Crosse and other forms of California encephalitis . Journal of Child Neurology , 14 : 1 – 14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saliba , W. R. , Raz , R. , Keness , Y. , Goldstein , L. H. , Reshef , A. and Elias , M. 2004 . Cytomegalovirus encephalitis in an immunocompetent pregnant woman . European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases , 23 : 563 – 566 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Savage , E. , Ramsay , M. , White , J. , Beard , S. , Lawson , H. , Hunjan , R. and Brown , D. 2005 . Mumps outbreaks across England and Wales in 2004: Observational study . British Medical Journal , 330 : 1119 – 1120 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmolck , H. , Maritz , E. , Kletzin , I. and Korinthenberg , R. 2005 . Neurologic, neuropsychologic, and electroencephalographic findings after European tick-borne encephalitis in children . Journal of Child Neurology , 20 : 500 – 508 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Skarpaas , T. , Ljostad , U. and Sundoy , A. 2004 . First human cases of tickborne encephalitis, Norway . Emerging Infectious Diseases , 10 : 2241 – 2243 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skoldenberg , B. , Forsgren , M. , Alestig , K. , Bergstrom , T. , Burman , L. , Dahlqvist , E. , Forkman , A. , Fryden , A. , Lovgren , K. and Norlin , K. 1984 . Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Randomised multicentre study in consecutive Swedish patients . Lancet , 2 : 707 – 711 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smithburn , J. S. , Hughes , T. P. , Burke , A. W. and Paul , J. H. 1940 . A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda . American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 20 : 471 – 492 .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , T. , Dung , N. M. , Kneen , R. , Gainsborough , M. , Vaughn , D. W. and Khanh , V. T. 2000 . Japanese encephalitis . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 68 : 405 – 415 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , T. and Mallewa , M. 2001 . Dengue and other emerging Flaviviruses . Journal of Infection , 42 : 104 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Studahl , M. , Bergstrom , T. and Hagberg , L. 1998 . Acute viral encephalitis in adults: A prospective study . Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases , 30 : 215 – 220 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaughn , D. W. and Hoke , C. H. Jr . 1992 . The epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: Prospects for prevention . Epidemiologic Reviews , 14 : 197 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volpi , A. 2005 . Epstein–Barr virus and human herpesvirus type 8 infections of the central nervous system . Herpes , 11 : 120A – 127A .
   Google Scholar
• Ward , K. N. 2005a . Human herpesviruses-6 and -7 infections . Current Opinions in Infectious Diseases , 18 : 247 – 252 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ward , K. N. 2005b . The natural history and laboratory diagnosis of human herpesviruses-6 and -7 infections in the immunocompetent . Journal of Clinical Virology , 32 : 183 – 193 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , K. N. , Andrews , N. J. , Verity , C. M. , Miller , E. and Ross , E. M. 2005 . Human herpesviruses-6 and -7 each cause significant neurological morbidity in Britain and Ireland . Archives of Diseases of Childhood , 90 : 619 – 623 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrell , M. J. and Warrell , D. A. 2005 . Rabies and other lyssavirus disease . Lancet , 363 : 959 – 969 .
   Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. 1990 . Viral encephalitis . New England Journal of Medicine , 26 : 242 – 250 .
   Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. , Alford , C. A. , Hirsch , M. S. , Schooley , R. T. , Luby , J. P. , Aoki , F. Y. , Hanley , D. , Nahmias , A. J. and Soong , S. J. 1986 . Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis . New England Journal of Medicine , 314 : 144 – 149 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. and Gnann , J. W. 2002 . Viral encephalitis: Familiar infections and emerging pathogens . Lancet , 359 : 507 – 513 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. and Kimberlin , D. W. 2005 . Herpes simplex encephalitis: Children and adolescents . Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases , 16 ( 1 ) : 17 – 23 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zerr , D. M. , Meier , A. S. , Selke , S. S. , Frenkel , L. M. , Huang , M. L. , Wald , A. , Rhoads , M. P. , Nguy , L. , Bornemann , T. , Morrow , R. A. and Corey , L. 2005 . A population-based study of primary human herpesvirus 6 infection . New England Journal of Medicine , 352 ( 8 ) : 768 – 776 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar