A medical overview of encephalitis

REFERENCES

• Al-Din , A. N. , Anderson , M. , Bickerstaff , E. R. and Harvey , I. 1982 . Brainstem encephalitis and syndrome of Miller Fisher: A clinical study . Brain , 105 ( 3 ) : 481 – 495 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Apak , R. A. , Anlar , B. and Sacctci , I. 1999 . A case of relapsing acute disseminated encephalomyelitis with high dose corticosteroid treatment . Brain Development , 21 ( 4 ) : 279 – 282 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balestri , P. , Grosso , S. , Acquaviva , A. and Bernini , M. 2000 . Plasmapheresis in a child affected by acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Brain Development , 22 ( 2 ) : 123 – 126 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bickerstaff , E. R. 1957 . Brain-stem encephalitis: Further observation on a grave syndrome with benign prognosis . British Medical Journal , 1 : 1384 – 1387 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bien , C. G. , Widman , G. , Urbach , H. , Sassen , R. , Kuczaty , S. , Wiestler , O. D. , Schramm , J. and Elger , C. E. 2002 . The natural history of Rasmussen's encephalitis . Brain , 125 ( 8 ) : 1751 – 1759 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bizzi , A. , Aziz , M. , Ulug , T. , Thomas , O. , Crawford , T. , Bugiani , M. , Bryan , N. and Barker , P. 2001 . Quantitative proton MR spectroscopic imaging in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . American Journal of Neuroradiology , 22 : 1125 – 1130 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Booss , J. and Esiri , M. M. 2003 . Viral encephalitis in humans , Washington, DC : ASM Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brick , J. F. , Brick , J. E. , Morgan , J. J. and Gutierrez , A. R. 1990 . EEG and pathological findings in patients undergoing brain biopsy for suspected encephalitis . Electroencephalgraphy and Clinical Neurophysiology , 76 : 86 – 89 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Caldemeyer , K. S. , Smith , R. R. , Harris , T. M. and Edwards , M. K. 1994 . MRI in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Neuroradiology , 36 : 219 – 223 .
   Google Scholar
• Chaudhuri , A. and Kennedy , P. G. E. 2002 . Diagnosis and treatment of viral encephalitis . Postgraduate Medical Journal , 78 : 575 – 583 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale , R. C. , Sousa , C , de. , Chong , W. K. , Cox , T. C. S. , Harding , B. and Neville , B. G. 2000 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis . Brain , 123 ( 12 ) : 2407 – 2422 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davies , N. W. , Brown , L. , Gonde , J. , Irish , D. and Robinson , R. 2005 . Factors influencing PCR detection of virus in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with suspected CNS infections . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 76 : 82 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , L. E. and Tyler , K. L. 2005 . Molecular diagnosis of CNS viral infection . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 76 : 10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davison , K. L. , Crowcroft , N. , Ramsay , M. and Brown , D. 2003 . Viral encephalitis in England, 1989–1998 . Emerging Infectious Diseases , 9 ( 2 ) : 234 – 240 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dekosky , S. T. , Kaufer , D. L. and Lopez , O. L. 2004 . “ The dementias ” . In Neurology in clinical practice , Edited by: Bradley , W. G. , Daroff , R. B. , Fenichel , G. M. and Jankovic , J. 1901 – 1953 . Philadelphia : Butterworth Heinman, Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Enting , R. , de Gans , J. , Reiss , P , Jansen , C. and Portegies , P. 1992 . Ganciclovir/foscarnet for cytomegalovirus meningoencephalitis in AIDS . Lancet , 340 : 559 – 560 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fenichel , G. M. 1982 . Neurological complications of immunizations . Annals of Neurology , 12 : 119 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Morales , I. , Garcia , M. T. , Galan-Davila , L. , Gomez-Escalonilla , C. , Saiz-Diaz , R. , Martinez-Salio , A. , de la Pena , P. and Tejerina , J. A. 2002 . Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges: Etiology, clinical aspects, seizures and evolution in 130 patients . Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology , 19 ( 2 ) : 172 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg , R. K. 2003 . Acute dissemination encephalomyelitis . Postgraduate Medical Journal , 79 : 11 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geerts , Y. , Dehaene , I. and Lammens , M. 1991 . Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis . Acta Neurologica Belgica , 91 ( 4 ) : 201 – 211 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gupte , G. , Stonehouse , M. , Wassmer , E. , Coad , N. A. and Whitehouse , W. P. 2003 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A review of 18 cases in childhood . Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health , 39 : 336 – 342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn , C. D. , Miles , B. S. , MacGregor , D. L. , Blasser , S. I. , Banwell , B. L. and Hetherington , C. R. 2003 . Neurocognitive outcome after acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Pediatric Neurology , 29 ( 2 ) : 117 – 123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartung , H. P. and Grossman , R. 2001 . ADEM: Distinct disease or part of the MS spectrum . Neurology , 56 : 1257 – 1260 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayes , E. , Sejvar , J. , Sheriff , Z. , Lanciotti , R. , Bode , A. and Campbell , G. 2005 . Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease . Emerging Infectious Disease , 11 ( 8 ) : 1174 – 1179 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiner , L. and Demaerel , P. 2003 . Diffusion-weighted MR imaging finding in a patient with herpes simplex encephalitis . European Journal of Radiology , 45 ( 3 ) : 195 – 198 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hindmarsh , T. , Lindqvist , M. , Olding-Stenvisk , E. , Skolenberg , B. and Forsgren , M. 1986 . Accuracy of computer tomography in the diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis . Acta Radiologica, Spp 369 , : 192 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Hollinger , P. , Sturzenegger , M. , Mathis , J. , Schroth , G. and Hess , C. 2002 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in adults: A reappraisal of clinical, CSF, EEG and MRI finding . Journal of Neurology , 249 : 320 – 329 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hokkanen , L. , Poutiainen , E. , Valanne , L. , Salonen , O. , Livanainen , M. and Launes , J. 1996 . Cognitive impairment after acute encephalitis: Comparison of herpes simplex and other aetiologies . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 61 ( 5 ) : 478 – 484 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hurst , E. W. 1941 . Acute Haemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis previous undefined entity . Medical Journal of Australia, Sydney , 2 : 16
   Google Scholar
• Hynson , J. L. , Kornberg , A. J. , Coleman , A. T. , Shield , L. , Harvey , A. S. and Kean , M. J. 2001 . Clinical and neuroradiologic features of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children . Neurology , 5 : 1308 – 1312 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , R. T. 1998 . Emerging viral infection of the nervous system , 2nd , Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Kamei , S. , Sekizawa , T. , Shiota , H. , Mizutani , T. , Itoyama , Y. , Takasu , T. , Morishima , T. and Hirayanagi , K. 2005 . Evaluation of combination therapy using acyclovir and corticosteroid in adult patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 76 : 1544 – 1549 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanter , D. S. , Horensky , D. , Sperling , R. , Kaplan , J. D. , Malachowski , M. E. and Churchill , W. H. Jr . 1995 . Plasmapheresis in fulminant acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Neurology , 45 ( 4 ) : 824 – 827 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kennard , C. and Swash , M. 1981 . Acute viral encephalitis: Its diagnosis and outcome . Brain , 104 : 129 – 148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy , P. 2004 . Viral encephalitis: Cause differential diagnosis, and management . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 275 ( Suppl I ) : i10 – i15 .
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy , P. 2005 . Viral encephalitis . Journal of Neurology , 252 : 268 – 272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy , C. R. , Duffy , S. W. , Smith , R. and Robinson , R. O. 1987 . Clinical predictors of outcome in encephalitis . Archives of Diseases of Childhood , 62 ( 11 ) : 1156 – 1162 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kesselring , J. , Miller , D. H. , Robb , S. A. , Kendall , B. E. , Moseley , I. F. , Kingsley , D. , duBoulay , E. P. and McDonald , W. I. 1990 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. MRI findings and the distinction from multiple sclerosis . Brain , 113 : 291 – 302 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koskiniemi , M. , Rantalaiho , T. , Piiparinen , H. , von Bonsdorff , C. H. , Farkkila , M. Jarvinen , A. 2001 . Infections of the central nervous system of suspected viral origin: A collaborative study from Finland . Journal of Neurovirology , 7 : 400 – 408 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuker , W. , Nagele , T. , Schmidt , F. , Heckl , S. and Herrlinger , U. 2004 . Diffusion-weighted MRI in herpes simplex encephalitis: A report of three cases . Neuroradiology , 46 ( 2 ) : 122 – 125 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lakeman , F. D. and Whitely , R. J. 1995 . Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis: An application of polymerase chain reaction to cerebrospinal fluid from brain biopsy patients and correlation with disease. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious disease Collaborative Antiviral Study Group . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 171 : 857 – 863 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Launes , J. , Siren , J. , Valanne , L. , Salonen , O. , Nikkinen , P. , Seppalainen , A. M. and Liewendal , K. 1997 . Unilateral hyperperfusion in brain-perfusion SPECT predicts poor prognosis in acute encephalitis . Neurology , 48 : 1347 – 1351 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leake , J. A. , Albani , S. , Kao , A. , Senac , M. O. , Billman , G. F. Nespeca , M. P. 2004 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in childhood: Epidemiologic, clinical and laboratory features . Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal , 23 : 756 – 764 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , B. Y. , Newberg , A. B. , Leibeskind , D. S. , Kung , J. and Alavia , A. 2004 . FDG-PET finding in patients with suspected encephalitis . Clinical Nuclear Medicine , 29 ( 10 ) : 620 – 625 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lin , C. H. , Jeng , J. S. and Yip , P. K. 2004 . Plasmaperesis in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Journal of Clinical Apher , 19 ( 3 ) : 154 – 159 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mader , I. , Wolff , M. , Nagele , T. , Niemann , G. , Grodd , W. and Kuker , W. 2005 . MRI and proton MR spectroscopy in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Childrens Nervous System , 21 ( 7 ) : 566 – 572 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCabe , K. , Tyler , K. and Tanabe , J. 2003 . Diffusion-weighted MRI abnormalities as a clue to the diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis . Neurology , 61 ( 7 ) : 1015 – 1016 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCarthy , M. 2003 . Newer viral encephalitides . Neurologist , 9 ( 4 ) : 189 – 199 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McGrath , N. , Anderson , N. E. , Croxson , M. C. and Powell , K. F. 1997 . Herpes simplex encephalitis treated with acyclovir: Diagnosis and long term outcome . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 63 : 321 – 326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menge , T. , Hemmer , B. , Nessler , S. , Wiendl , H. , Neuhaus , O. , Hartung , H. P. , Kieseier , B. and Stuve , O. 2005 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Archives of Neurology , 62 : 1673 – 1680 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mikaeloff , Y. , Suissa , S. , Vallee , L. , Lubetzki , C. , Ponsot , G. , Confacreux , C. , Tardieu , M. and KIDMUS study group . 2004 . First episode of acute CNS inflammation demyelination in childhood: Prognostic factors for multiple sclerosis and disability . Journal of Pediatrics , 144 : 246 – 252 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyazawa , R. , Hikima , A. and Takano , Y. 2001 . Plasmapheresis in fulminant acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Brain Development , 23 ( 6 ) : 424 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murthy , S. N. , Faden , H. S. , Cohen , M. E. and Bakshi , R. 2002 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children . Paediatrics , 110 : e21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nash , D. , Mostashari , F. , Fine , A. , Miller , J. , O'Leary , D. , Murrary , K. West Nile Virus Outbreak response Working Group . 2001 . The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999 . New England Journal of Medicine , 344 ( 24 ) : 1807 – 1814 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishikawa , M. , Ichiyama , T. , Hayashi , T. , Ouchi , K. and Furukawa , S. 1999 . Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Pediatric Neurology , 21 ( 2 ) : 583 – 586 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odaka , M. , Yuki , N. , Yamada , M. , Koga , M. , Takemi , T. , Hirata , K. and Kuwabara , S. 2003 . Bickerstaff's brainstem encephalitis: Clinical features of 62 cases and a subgroup association with Guillian-Barre syndrome . Brain , 126 : 1 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Olson , L. C. , Buescher , E. L. , Artenstein , M. S. and Parkman , P. D. 1967 . Herpesvirus 7infections of the human central nervous system . New England Journal of Medicine , 277 : 1271 – 1277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Openshaw , H. and Cantin , E. M. 2005 . Corticosteroid in herpes simplex virus encephalitis . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 76 : 1469 – 1471 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Riordan , J. L. , Gomez-Anson , B. , Moseley , I. F. and Miller , D. H. 1999 . Long term follow up of patients with post infective encephalomyelitis: Evidence for a monophasic disease . Journal of Neurological Science , 167 : 132 – 136 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxbury , J. M. and MacCallum , F. O. 1973 . Herpes simplex virus encephalitis: Clinical features and residual damage . Postgraduate Medical Journal , 49 : 387 – 389 .
   Google Scholar
• Pradhan , S. , Gupta , R. P. , Shashank , S. and Pandey , N. 1999 . Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis . Journal of Neurological Science , 165 ( 1 ) : 56 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothstein , T. L. and Shaw , C. M. 1983 . Computerized tomography as a diagnostic aid in acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis . Annals of Neurology , 13 ( 3 ) : 331 – 333 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sahlas , D. J. , Miller , S. P. , Guerin , M. , Veilleux , M. and Francis , C. 2000 . Treatment of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis with intravenous immunoglobulin . Neurology , 54 ( 6 ) : 1370 – 1372 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz , S. , Mohr , A. , Knauth , M. and Wildemann , B. 2001 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A follow-up study of 40 adult patients . Neurology , 56 : 1313 – 1318 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahar , E. , Andraus , J. , Savitzki , D. , Pilar , G. and Zelnik , N. 2002 . Outcome of severe encephalomyelitis in children: Effect of high dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins . Journal of Child Neurology , 17 ( 11 ) : 810 – 814 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skoldenberg , B. , Forsgren , M. , Alestig , K. , Bergstrom , T. , Burman , L. Dahiquist , E. 1984 . Acyclovir verus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis: Randomized multicentre study in consective Swedish patients . Lancet , 2 : 707 – 712 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner , I. , Budka , H. , Chaudhuri , Koskiniemi , M. and Sainio , K. 2005 . Viral encephalitis: A review of diagnostic method and guidelines for management . European Journal of Neurology , 12 : 331 – 343 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straub , J. , Chofflon , M. and Delavelle , J. 1997 . Early high-dose intravenous methyl-prednisolone in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A successful recovery . Neurology , 49 : 1145 – 1147 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stricker , R. B. , Miller , R. G. and Kiprov , D. D. 1992 . Role of plasmapheresis in acute disseminated (postinfectious) encephalomyelitis . Journal of Clinical Aphere , 7 ( 4 ) : 173 – 179 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Striebel , H. M. , Birch-Hirschfeld , E. , Egerer , R. and Foldes-Papp , Z. 2003 . Virus diagnosis on microarrarys . Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology , 4 : 401 – 415 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tenembaum , S. , Chamoles , N. and Fejerman , N. 2002 . Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A long term follow-up study of 84 paediatric patients . Neurology , 59 : 1224 – 1231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiroumourougane , S. , Raghava , P. and Srinivasan , S. 2002 . Japanese viral encephalitis . Postgraduate Medical Journal , 78 : 205 – 215 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trescher , W. H. and Lesser , R. P. 2004 . “ The epilepsies ” . In Neurology in Clinical Practice , Edited by: Bradley , W. G. , Daroff , R. B. , Fenichel , G. M. and Jankovic , J. 1952 – 1993 . Pennsylvania : Butterworth Heinman, Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Tyler , K. 2004 . West Nile Virus Infection in the United States . Archives of Neurology , 61 : 1190 – 1195 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Utley , T. , Ogden , J. , Gibb , A. , McGrath , N. and Anderson , N. E. 1997 . The long-term neuropsychological outcome of unselected survivors . Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioural Neurology , 10 ( 3 ) : 180 – 189 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valentine , A. R. , Kendall , B. E. and Harding , B. N. 1982 . Computer tomography in acute haemorrhagic leukoencephalitis . Neuroradiology , 22 ( 4 ) : 215 – 219 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weber , T. , Turner , R. W. , Frye , S. , Ruf , B. , Haas , J. Schielke , E. 1994 . Specific diagnosis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy by polymerase chain reaction . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 169 : 1138 – 1141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitly , R. J. , Alford , C. A. , Hirsh , M. S. , Schooley , R. T. , Luby , J. P. Aoki , F. Y. 1986 . Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis . New England Journal of Medicine , 314 : 144 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. , Cobbs , C. G. , Alford , C. A. Jr , Soong , S. J , Hirsch , M. S. Connor , J. D. 1989 . Diseases that mimic herpes simplex encephalitis: Diagnosis, presentation and outcome. NIAD collaborative antiviral study group . Journal of the American Medical Association , 262 : 234 – 239 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. and Gnann , J. W. 2002 . Viral encephalitis: Familiar infections and emerging pathogens . Lancet , 9,359 ( 9305 ) : 507 – 513 .
   Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. and Lakeman , F. 1995 . Herpes simplex infections of the central nervous system: therapeutic and diagnostic consideration . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 20 : 414 – 420 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitley , R. J. , Soong , S. L. , Linneman , C. Jr , Liu , C. , Pazin , G. and Alford , C. A. 1982 . Herpes simplex encephalitis: Clinical assessment . Journal of the American Medical Association , 247 : 317 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar