Training working memory updating in Parkinson’s disease: A randomised controlled trial

References

• Aarsland, D., Bronnick, K., Larsen, J. P., Tysnes, O. B., Alves, G., & Group, N. P. S. (2009). Cognitive impairment in incident, untreated Parkinson disease: the Norwegian ParkWest study. Neurology, 72, 1121–1126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarsland, D., Creese, B., Politis, M., Chaudhuri, K. R., Ffytche, D. H., Weintraub, D., & Ballard, C. (2017). Cognitive decline in Parkinson disease. Nature Reviews Neurology, 13, 217–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 22, 366–377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., Soveri, A., Johansson, J., Andersson, M., Dahlin, E., … Rinne, J. O. (2011). Effects of working-memory training on striatal dopamine release. Science, 333, 718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckman, L., Waris, O., Johansson, J., Andersson, M., Rinne, J. O., Alakurtti, K., … Nyberg, L. (2017). Increased dopamine release after working-memory updating training: Neurochemical correlates of transfer. Scientific Reports, 7, 1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, L. F., Tugade, M. M., & Engle, R. W. (2004). Individual differences in working memory capacity and dual-process theories of the mind. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 553–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartsch, A., & Kothe, E. (2016). The effect of non-specific response inhibition training on alcohol consumption: An intervention. Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, 07, 1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biemans, M. A. J. E., Dekker, J., & van der Woude, L. H. V. (2001). The internal consistency and validity of the self-assessment Parkinson’s disease disability scale. Clinical Rehabilitation, 15, 221–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borella, E., Carbone, E., Pastore, M., De Beni, R., & Carretti, B. (2017). Working memory training for healthy older adults: The role of individual characteristics in explaining short- and long-term gains. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 1–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borella, E., Carretti, B., Riboldi, F., & De Beni, R. (2010). Working memory training in older adults: Evidence of transfer and maintenance effects. Psychology and Aging, 25, 767–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, V. A., Welch, J. L., & Dick, D. J. (1989). Visuospatial working memory in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 52, 1228–1235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: Training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronnick, K., Ehrt, U., Emre, M., De Deyn, P. P., Wesnes, K., Tekin, S., & Aarsland, D. (2006). Attentional deficits affect activities of daily living in dementia-associated with Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 77, 1136–1142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. G., MacCarthy, B., Jahanshahi, M., & Marsden, C. D. (1989). Accuracy of self-reported disability in patients with parkinsonism. Archives of Neurology, 46, 955–959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carretti, B., Borella, E., Fostinelli, S., & Zavagnin, M. (2013). Benefits of training working memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: Specific and transfer effects. International Psychogeriatrics, 25, 617–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carretti, B., Borella, E., Zavagnin, M., & De Beni, R. (2013). Gains in language comprehension relating to working memory training in healthy older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28, 539–546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerasa, A., Gioia, M. C., Salsone, M., Donzuso, G., Chiriaco, C., Realmuto, S., … Quattrone, A. (2014). Neurofunctional correlates of attention rehabilitation in Parkinson’s disease: An explorative study. Neurological Sciences, 35, 1173–1180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cilia, R., Cereda, E., Klersy, C., Canesi, M., Zecchinelli, A. L., Mariani, C. B., … Pezzoli, G. (2015). Parkinson’s disease beyond 20 years. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 86, 849–855.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colom, R., Rebollo, I., Abad, F. J., & Shih, P. C. (2006). Complex span tasks, simple span tasks, and cognitive abilities: A reanalysis of key studies. Memory and Cognition, 34, 158–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conners, C. K., Epstein, J. N., Angold, A., & Klaric, J. (2003). Continuous performance test performance in a normative epidemiological sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 555–562.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlin, E., Neely, A. S., Larsson, A., Bäckman, L., & Nyberg, L. (2008). Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science, 320, 1510–1512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dardiotis, E., Nousia, A., Siokas, V., Tsouris, Z., Andravizou, A., Mentis, A.-F. A., … Nasios, G. (2018). Efficacy of computer-based cognitive training in neuropsychological performance of patients with multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders, 20, 58–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deveau, J., Jaeggi, S. M., Zordan, V., Phung, C., & Seitz, A. R. (2015). How to build better memory training games. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 1–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimitrov, D. M., & Rumrill Jr, P. D. (2003). Pretest-posttest designs and measurement of change. Work, 20, 159–165.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dujardin, K., Leentjens, A. F. G., Langlois, C., Moonen, A. J. H., Duits, A. A., Carette, A.-S., & Duhamel, A. (2013). The spectrum of cognitive disorders in Parkinson’s disease: A data-driven approach. Movement Disorders, 28, 183–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dujardin, K., Moonen, A. J. H., Behal, H., Defebvre, L., Duhamel, A., Duits, A. A., … Leentjens, A. F. G. (2015). Cognitive disorders in Parkinson’s disease: Confirmation of a spectrum of severity. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 21, 1299–1305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, J. D., Hauser, R. A., O’Connor, M. L., Valdes, E. G., Zesiewicz, T. A., & Uc, E. Y. (2013). Randomized trial of cognitive speed of processing training in Parkinson disease. Neurology, 81, 1284–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emre, M., Aarsland, D., Brown, R., Burn, D. J., Duyckaerts, C., Mizuno, Y., … Dubois, B. (2007). Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 22, 1689–1707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson, J., Vogel, E. K., Lansner, A., Bergström, F., & Nyberg, L. (2015). Neurocognitive architecture of working memory. Neuron, 88, 33–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahn, S., & Elton, R. (1987). Members of the UPDRS development committee. Unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale. In S. Fahn, C. D. Marsden, D. B. Calne, & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Recent development in Parkinson’s disease (pp. 153–163). Florham Park, NJ: Macmillan Health Care Information.
   Google Scholar
• Fellman, D., Soveri, A., Viktorsson, C., Haga, S., Nylund, J., Johansson, S., … Laine, M. (2018). Selective updating of sentences: Introducing a new measure of verbal working memory. Applied Psycholinguistics, 39, 275–301.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fellman, D., Soveri, A., Waris, O., & Laine, M. (2017). Training of verbal working memory at sentence level fails to show transfer. Frontiers in Communication, 2, 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Fernández-Calvo, B., Contador, I., Ramos, F., Olazarán, J., Mograbi, D. C., & Morris, R. G. (2015). Effect of unawareness on rehabilitation outcome in a randomised controlled trial of multicomponent intervention for patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 25, 448–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick, R., Peto, V., Jenkinson, C., Greenhall, R., & Hyman, N. (1997). Health-related quality of life in Parkinson’s disease: A study of outpatient clinic attenders. Movement Disorders, 12, 916–922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, J. B. (2017). Amazon’s mechanical Turk: A comment. Journal of Advertising, 46, 156–158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gatz, M., Reynolds, C., Nikolic, J., Lowe, B., Karel, M., & Pedersen, N. (1995). An empirical test of telephone screening to identify potential dementia cases. International Psychogeriatrics, 7, 429–438.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibson, B. S., Kronenberger, W. G., Gondoli, D. M., Johnson, A. C., Morrissey, R. A., & Steeger, C. M. (2012). Component analysis of simple span vs. complex span adaptive working memory exercises: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1, 179–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glizer, D., & MacDonald, P. A. (2016). Cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease: A review of studies from 2000 to 2014. Parkinson’s Disease, 2016, 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Grissom, R. J., & Kim, J. J. (2005). Effect sizes for research: A broad practical approach. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guye, S., De Simoni, C., & von Bastian, C. C. (2017). Do individual differences predict change in cognitive training performance? A latent growth curve modeling approach. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 374–393.
   Google Scholar
• Guye, S., & von Bastian, C. C. (2017). Working memory training in older adults: Bayesian evidence supporting the absence of transfer. Psychology and Aging, 32, 732–746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halsey, L. G., Curran-Everett, D., Vowler, S. L., & Drummond, G. B. (2015). The fickle P value generates irreproducible results. Nature Methods, 12, 179–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statstics, 6, 107–128.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, N. T. M., Mowszowski, L., Naismith, S. L., Chadwick, V. L., Valenzuela, M., & Lampit, A. (2017). Computerized cognitive training in older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 329–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu, Y.-T., Liao, C.-C., Chang, S.-N., Yang, Y.-W., Tsai, C.-H., Chen, T.-L., & Sung, F.-C. (2015). Increased risk of depression in patients with Parkinson disease: A nationwide cohort study. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 934–940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeggi, S. M., Karbach, J., & Strobach, T. (2017). Editorial special topic: Enhancing brain and cognition through cognitive training. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 353–357.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkinson, C., Fitzpatrick, R., Peto, V., Greenhall, R., & Hyman, N. (1997). The Parkinson’s disease questionnaire (PDQ-39): development and validation of a Parkinson’s disease summary index score. Age and Ageing, 26, 353–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jewsbury, P. A., Bowden, S. C., & Duff, K. (2017). The Cattell–Horn–Carroll model of cognition for clinical assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 35, 547–567.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joutsa, J., Rinne, J. O., Eskola, O., & Kaasinen, V. (2013). Reduced striatal dopamine synthesis capacity is associated with symptoms of depression in patients with de novo unmedicated Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Parkinson’s Disease, 3, 325–329.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18, 614–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karbach, J., Könen, T., & Spengler, M. (2017). Who benefits the most? Individual differences in the transfer of executive control training across the lifespan. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 394–405.
   Google Scholar
• Kehagia, A. A., Barker, R. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2010). Neuropsychological and clinical heterogeneity of cognitive impairment and dementia in patients with Parkinson’s disease. The Lancet Neurology, 9, 1200–1213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 352–358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kühn, S., Schmiedek, F., Noack, H., Wenger, E., Bodammer, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Lövdén, M. (2013). The dynamics of change in striatal activity following updating training. Human Brain Mapping, 34, 1530–1541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2015). Lmertest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82, 1–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laine, M., Fellman, D., Waris, O., & Nyman, T. J. (2018). The early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training. Scientific Reports, 8, 1–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Medicine, 11, 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La Pointe, L. B., & Engle, R. W. (1990). Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 1118–1133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, B. J., Gasson, N., Bucks, R. S., Troeung, L., & Loftus, A. M. (2017). Cognitive training and noninvasive brain stimulation for cognition in Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 31, 597–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, E.-Y., Cowan, N., Vogel, E. K., Rolan, T., Valle-Inclan, F., & Hackley, S. A. (2010). Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson’s disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information. Brain, 133, 2677–2689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung, I. H. K., Walton, C. C., Hallock, H., Lewis, S. J., Valenzuela, M., & Lampit, A. (2015). Cognitive training in Parkinson disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology, 85, 1843–1851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, S. J., Dove, A., Robbins, T. W., Barker, R. A., & Owen, A. M. (2003). Cognitive impairments in early Parkinson’s disease are accompanied by reductions in activity in frontostriatal neural circuitry. The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 23, 6351–6356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman, A. (2006). Depression in Parkinson’s disease–a review. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 113, 1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litvan, I., Goldman, J. G., Tröster, A. I., Schmand, B. A., Weintraub, D., Petersen, R. C., … Emre, M. (2012). Diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: Movement disorder society task force guidelines. Movement Disorders, 27, 349–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 512–534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mewborn, C. M., Lindbergh, C. A., & Stephen Miller, L. (2017). Cognitive interventions for cognitively healthy, mildly impaired, and mixed samples of older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. Neuropsychology Review, 27, 403–439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirman, D. (2014). Growth curve analysis and visualization using R. New York, NY: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motter, J. N., Pimontel, M. A., Rindskopf, D., Devanand, D. P., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Sneed, J. R. (2016). Computerized cognitive training and functional recovery in major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 184–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murty, V. P., Sambataro, F., Radulescu, E., Altamura, M., Iudicello, J., Zoltick, B., … Mattay, V. S. (2011). Selective updating of working memory content modulates meso-cortico-striatal activity. NeuroImage, 57, 1264–1272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muslimovic, D., Post, B., Speelman, J. D., & Schmand, B. (2005). Cognitive profile of patients with newly diagnosed Parkinson disease. Neurology, 65, 1239–1245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narayanan, N. S., Rodnitzky, R. L., & Uc, E. Y. (2013). Prefrontal dopamine signaling and cognitive symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 24, 267–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niu, Y.-X., Tan, J.-P., Guan, J.-Q., Zhang, Z.-Q., & Wang, L.-N. (2010). Cognitive stimulation therapy in the treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation, 24, 1102–1111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman, S., Tröster, A. I., Fields, J. A., & Brooks, R. (2002). Effects of depression and Parkinson’s disease on cognitive functioning. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14, 31–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O”Reilly, R. C., & Frank, M. J. (2006). Making working memory work: A computational model of learning in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Neural Computation, 18, 283–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen, A. M., Doyon, J., Dagher, A., Sadikot, A., & Evans, A. C. (1998). Abnormal basal ganglia outflow in Parkinson’s disease identified with PET. Implications for higher cortical functions. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 121, 949–965.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• París, A. P., Saleta, H. G., de la Cruz Crespo Maraver, M., Silvestre, E., Freixa, M. G., Torrellas, C. P., … Bayés, À. R. (2011). Blind randomized controlled study of the efficacy of cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 26, 1251–1258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne, B. R., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2017). The effects of home-based cognitive training on verbal working memory and language comprehension in older adulthood. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9, 1–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen, K. F., Larsen, J. P., Tysnes, O.-B., & Alves, G. (2017). Natural course of mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson disease: A 5-year population-based study. Neurology, 88, 767–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peña, J., Ibarretxe-Bilbao, N., Garcia-Gorostiaga, I., Gomez-Beldarrain, M. A., Diez-Cirarda, M., & Ojeda, N. (2014). Improving functional disability and cognition in Parkinson disease: Randomized controlled trial. Neurology, 83, 2167–2174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, P., & Fuchs, D. (2017). A randomized control trial of working memory training with and without strategy instruction: Effects on young children’s working memory and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50, 62–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrelli, A., Kaesberg, S., Barbe, M. T., Timmermann, L., Fink, G. R., Kessler, J., & Kalbe, E. (2014). Effects of cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 20, 1196–1202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrelli, A., Kaesberg, S., Barbe, M. T., Timmermann, L., Rosen, J. B., Fink, G. R., … Kalbe, E. (2015). Cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease reduces cognitive decline in the long term. European Journal of Neurology, 22, 640–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeiffer, H. C. V., Løkkegaard, A., Zoetmulder, M., Friberg, L., & Werdelin, L. (2014). Cognitive impairment in early-stage non-demented Parkinson’s disease patients. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 129, 307–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pigott, K., Rick, J., Xie, S. X., Hurtig, H., Chen-Plotkin, A., Duda, J. E., … Weintraub, D. (2015). Longitudinal study of normal cognition in Parkinson disease. Neurology, 85, 1276–1282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirogovsky, E., Woods, S. P., Filoteo, J. V., & Gilbert, P. E. (2012). Prospective memory deficits are associated with poorer everyday functioning in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 986–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollack, I., Johnson, L. B., & Knaff, P. R. (1959). Running memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 137–146.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pompeu, J. E., dos Santos Mendes, F. A., da Silva, K. G., Lobo, A. M., de Paula Oliveira, T., Zomignani, A. P., & Piemonte, M. E. P. (2012). Effect of Nintendo WiiTM-based motor and cognitive training on activities of daily living in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A randomised clinical trial. Physiotherapy, 98, 196–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rektorova, I., Srovnalova, H., Kubikova, R., & Prasek, J. (2008). Striatal dopamine transporter imaging correlates with depressive symptoms and tower of London task performance in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 23, 1580–1587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remy, P., Doder, M., Lees, A., Turjanski, N., & Brooks, D. (2005). Depression in Parkinson’s disease: Loss of dopamine and noradrenaline innervation in the limbic system. Brain, 128, 1314–1322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2005). BRIEF-A: Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–adult Version. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Salo, R., Henik, A., & Robertson, L. C. (2001). Interpreting stroop interference: An analysis of differences between task versions. Neuropsychology, 15, 462–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrag, A., Jahanshahi, M., & Quinn, N. (2000a). How does Parkinson’s disease affect quality of life? A comparison with quality of life in the general population. Movement Disorders, 15, 1112–1118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrag, A., Jahanshahi, M., & Quinn, N. (2000b). What contributes to quality of life in patients with Parkinson’s disease? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 69, 308–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegert, R. J., Weatherall, M., Taylor, K. D., & Abernethy, D. A. (2008). A meta-analysis of performance on simple span and more complex working memory tasks in Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychology, 22, 450–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359–1366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sitzer, D. I., Twamley, E. W., & Jeste, D. V. (2006). Cognitive training in Alzheimer’s disease: A meta-analysis of the literature. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 114, 75–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sockeel, P., Dujardin, K., Devos, D., Deneve, C., Destee, A., & Defebvre, L. (2006). The Lille apathy rating scale (LARS), a new instrument for detecting and quantifying apathy: Validation in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 77, 579–584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24, 1077–1096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanislaw, H., & Todorov, N. (1999). Calculation of signal detection theory measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 137–149.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomlinson, C. L., Stowe, R., Patel, S., Rick, C., Gray, R., & Clarke, C. E. (2010). Systematic review of levodopa dose equivalency reporting in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 25, 2649–2653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tröster, A. I. (2011). A précis of recent advances in the neuropsychology of mild cognitive impairment(s) in Parkinson’s disease and a proposal of preliminary research criteria. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 393–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troster, A. I., Paolo, A. M., Lyons, K. E., Glatt, S. L., Hubble, J. P., & Koller, W. C. (1995). The influence of depression on cognition in Parkinson’s disease: A pattern of impairment distinguishable from Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 45, 672–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uc, E. Y., Rizzo, M., Anderson, S. W., Qian, S., Rodnitzky, R. L., & Dawson, J. D. (2005). Visual dysfunction in Parkinson disease without dementia. Neurology, 65, 1907–1913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2006). Simple and complex memory spans and their relation to fluid abilities: Evidence from list-length effects. Journal of Memory and Language, 54, 68–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. Psychological Review, 114, 104–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., & Spillers, G. J. (2010). Working memory capacity: Attention control, secondary memory, or both? A direct test of the dual-component model. Journal of Memory and Language, 62, 392–406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallat-Azouvi, C., Pradat-Diehl, P., & Azouvi, P. (2012). The working memory questionnaire: A scale to assess everyday life problems related to deficits of working memory in brain injured patients. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 22, 634–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermeij, A., Kessels, R. P. C., Heskamp, L., Simons, E. M. F., Dautzenberg, P. L. J., & Claassen, J. A. H. R. (2017). Prefrontal activation may predict working-memory training gain in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11, 141–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, C. C., Naismith, S. L., Lampit, A., Mowszowski, L., & Lewis, S. J. G. (2017). Cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease: A theoretical perspective. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 31, 207–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ahti, M., Hoffing, R. C., Ventus, D., Jaeggi, S. M., … Laine, M. (2017). A latent factor analysis of working memory measures using large-scale data. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Was, C. A., Rawson, K. A., Bailey, H., & Dunlosky, J. (2011). Content-embedded tasks beat complex span for predicting comprehension. Behavior Research Methods, 43, 910–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (2003). The reliability and stability of verbal working memory measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 35, 550–564.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Webb, S. L., Loh, V., Lampit, A., Bateman, J. E., & Birney, D. P. (2018). Meta-analysis of the effects of computerized cognitive training on executive functions: A cross-disciplinary taxonomy for classifying outcome cognitive factors. Neuropsychology Review, 28, 232–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler memory scale (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Weicker, J., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A. (2016). Can impaired working memory functioning be improved by training? A meta-analysis with a special focus on brain injured patients. Neuropsychology, 30, 190–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weintraub, D., Newberg, A. B., Cary, M. S., Siderowf, A. D., Moberg, P. J., Kleiner-Fisman, G., … Katz, I. R. (2005). Striatal dopamine transporter imaging correlates with anxiety and depression symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 46, 227–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, K. A., Breitner, J. C. S., & Magruder-Habib, K. M. (1993). Detection of dementia in the elderly using telephone screening of cognitive status. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 6, 103–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yesavage, J. A., Brink, T. L., Rose, T. L., Lum, O., Huang, V., Adey, M., & Leirer, V. O. (1982). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 37–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann, R., Gschwandtner, U., Benz, N., Hatz, F., Schindler, C., Taub, E., & Fuhr, P. (2014). Cognitive training in Parkinson disease: Cognition-specific vs nonspecific computer training. Neurology, 82, 1219–1226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Eschen, A., Herzog, C., & Kliegel, M. (2012). Potentials and limits of plasticity induced by working memory training in old-old age. Gerontology, 58, 79–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Rose, N. S., Putzmann, J., Pydde, A., & Kliegel, M. (2014). Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains. Developmental Psychology, 50, 304–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar