What methods have been used to estimate salt intake? A systematic review

References

• Albert V, Subramanian A, Rangarajan K, Pandey RM. 2011. Agreement of two different laboratory methods used to measure electrolytes. J Lab Physicians. 3:104–109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ball OT, Meneely GR. 1957. Observations on dietary sodium chloride. J Am Diet Assoc. 33(4):366–370.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown IJ, Dyer AR, Chan Q, Cogswell ME, Ueshima H, Stamler J, Elliott P; The INTERSALT. 2013. Estimating 24-hour urinary sodium excretion from casual urinary sodium concentrations in Western populations. The INTERSALT study. Am J Epidemiol. 177(11):1180–1192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogswell ME, Maalouf J, Elliott P, Loria CM, Patel S, Bowman BA. 2015. Use of urine biomarkers to assess sodium intake: challenges and opportunities. Annu Rev Nutr. 35:349–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogswell ME, Mugavero K, Bowman BA, Frieden TR. 2016. Dietary sodium and cardiovascular disease risk-measurement matters. N Engl J Med. 375(6):580–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook NR, Appel LJ, Whelton PK. 2014. Lower levels of sodium intake and reduced cardiovascular risk. Circulation. 129(9):981–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornélio ME, Godin G, Rodrigues RCM, Agondi RF, Alexandre NMC, Gallani M. 2016. Effect of a behavioral intervention of the SALdável program to reduce salt intake among hypertensive women: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 15(3):e85–e94.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotter J, Cotter MJ, Oliveira P, Cunha P, Polónia J. 2013. Salt intake in children 10–12 years old and its modification by active working practices in a school garden. J Hypertens. 31(10):1966–1971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Elia L, Galletti F, Strazzullo P. 2014. Dietary salt intake and risk of gastric cancer. Cancer Treat Res. 159:83–95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Denton D, Weisinger R, Mundy NI, Wickings EJ, Dixson A, Moisson P, Pingard AM, Shade R, Carey D, Ardaillou R. 1995. The effect of increased salt intake on blood pressure of chimpanzees. Nat Med. 1(10):1009–1016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekinci EI, Clarke S, Thomas MC, Moran JL, Cheong K, MacIsaac RJ, Jerums G. 2011. Dietary salt intake and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 34(3):703–709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, Marmot M. 1996. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. BMJ. 312(7041):1249–1253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyles H, Bhana N, Lee SE, Grimes C, McLean R, Nowson C, Wall C. 2018. Measuring children's sodium and potassium intakes in NZ: a pilot study. Nutrients. 1(9):10.
   Google Scholar
• Ferreira-Sae MCS, Gallani MC, Nadruz W, Rodrigues RC, Franchini KG, Cabral PC, Sales ML. 2009. Reliability and validity of a semi-quantitative FFQ for sodium intake in low-income and low-literacy Brazilian hypertensive subjects. Public Health Nutr. 12(11):2168–2173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forte JG, Miguel JM, Miguel MJ, de Padua F, Rose G. 1989. Salt and blood pressure: a community trial. J Hum Hypertens. 3(3):179–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman LS, Commins JM, Moler JE, Willett W, Tinker LF, Subar AF, Spiegelman D, Rhodes D, Potischman N, Neuhouser ML, et al. 2015. Pooled results from 5 validation studies of dietary self-report instruments using recovery biomarkers for potassium and sodium intake. Am J Epidemiol. 181(7):473–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia RA, Vanelli CP, Pereira Junior ODS, Corrêa JODA. 2018. Comparative analysis for strength serum sodium and potassium in three different methods: flame photometry, ion-selective electrode (ISE) and colorimetric enzymatic. J Clin Lab Anal. 32(9):e22594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graudal N, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jürgens G, McCarron DA. 2015. The significance of duration and amount of sodium reduction intervention in normotensive and hypertensive individuals: a meta-analysis. Adv Nutr. 6(2):169–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimes CA, Riddell LJ, Campbell KJ, Beckford K, Baxter JR, He FJ, Nowson CA. 2017. Dietary intake and sources of sodium and potassium among Australian schoolchildren: results from the cross-sectional Salt and Other Nutrients in Children (SONIC) study. BMJ Open. 7(10):e016639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He FJ, Marrero NM, MacGregor GA. 2008. Salt and blood pressure in children and adolescents. J Hum Hypertens. 22(1):4–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook JT, Patterson KY, Bodner JE, Douglas LW, Veillon C, Kelsay JL, Mertz W, Smith JC. 1984. Sodium and potassium intake and balance in adults consuming self-selected diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 40(4):786–793.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine (US) [IOM]. 2013. Sodium intake in populations: assessment of evidence. Washington (DC): The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• International Monetary Fund [IMF]. 2018. World Economic Outlook (October 2018) – GDP per capita, current prices. https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD?year=2019.
   Google Scholar
• Ji C, Cappuccio FP. 2014. Socioeconomic inequality in salt intake in Britain 10 years after a national salt reduction programme. BMJ Open. 4:e005683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson C, Raj TS, Trudeau L, Bacon SL, Padwal R, Webster J, Campbell N. 2015. The science of salt: a systematic review of clinical salt studies 2013 to 2014. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 17(5):401–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawasaki T, Itoh K, Uezono K, Sasaki H. 1993. A simple method for estimating 24 h urinary sodium and potassium excretion from second morning voiding urine specimen in adults. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 20(1):7–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly C, Geaney F, Fitzgerald AP, Browne GM, Perry IJ. 2015. Validation of diet and urinary excretion derived estimates of sodium excretion against 24-h urine excretion in a worksite sample. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 25(8):771–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyvraz M, Chatelan A, da Costa BR, Taffe P, Paradis G, Bovet P, Bochud M, Chiolero A. 2018. Sodium intake and blood pressure in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental and observational studies. Int J Epidemiol. 47(6):1796–1810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu K, Cooper R, Soltero I, Stamler J. 1979. Variability in 24-hour urine sodium excretion in children. Hypertension. 1(6):631–636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu K, Stamler J. 1984. Assessment of sodium intake in epidemiological studies on blood pressure. Ann Clin Res. 16(Suppl. 43):49–54.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ma Y, He FJ, MacGregor GA. 2015. High salt intake: independent risk factor for obesity? Hypertension. 66(4):843–849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald J, Graves J, Waldman A, Lotze T, Schreiner T, Belman A, Greenberg B, Weinstock-Guttman B, Aaen G, Tillema J-M, et al. 2016. A case-control study of dietary salt intake in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 6:87–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean RM. 2014. Measuring population sodium intake: a review of methods. Nutrients. 6(11):4651–4662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mente A, O'Donnell M, Rangarajan S, Dagenais G, Lear S, McQueen M, Diaz R, Avezum A, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Lanas F, et al. 2016. Associations of urinary sodium excretion with cardiovascular events in individuals with and without hypertension: a pooled analysis of data from four studies. Lancet. 388(10043):465–475.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercado CI, Cogswell ME, Valderrama AL, Wang C-Y, Loria CM, Moshfegh AJ, Rhodes DG, Carriquiry AL. 2015. Difference between 24-h diet recall and urine excretion for assessing population sodium and potassium intake in adults aged 18–39 y. Am J Clin Nutr. 101(2):376–386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill JG, da Silva ABT, Baldo MP, Molina MCB, Rodrigues SL. 2012. Correlation between sodium and potassium excretion in 24- and 12-h urine samples. Braz J Med Biol Res. 45(9):799–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill JG, Rodrigues SL, Baldo MP, Malta DC, Szwarcwald CL. 2015. Validation study of the Tanaka and Kawasaki equations to estimate the daily sodium excretion by a spot urine sample. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 18(Suppl. 2):224–237.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mills KT, Chen J, Yang W, Appel LJ, Kusek JW, Alper A, Delafontaine P, Keane MG, Mohler E, Ojo A, et al. 2016. Sodium excretion and the risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. JAMA. 315(20):2200–2210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan S, Campbell NR. 2009. Salt and high blood pressure. Clin Sci. 117(1):1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mozaffarian D, Singh GM, Powles J. 2014. Sodium and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 371(22):2138–2139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Donnell M, Mente A, Rangarajan S, McQueen MJ, Wang X, Liu L, Yan H, Lee SF, Mony P, Devanath A, et al. 2014. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion, mortality, and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 371:612–623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olde Engberink RHG, Van Den Hoek TC, Van Noordenne ND, Van Den Born BH, Peters-Sengers H, Vogt L. 2017. Use of a single baseline versus multiyear 24-hour urine collection for estimation of long-term sodium intake and associated cardiovascular and renal risk. Circulation. 136(10):917–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park SM, Jee J, Joung JY, Cho YY, Sohn SY, Jin SM, Hur KY, Kim JH, Kim SW, Chung JH, et al. 2014. High dietary sodium intake assessed by 24-hour urine specimen increase urinary calcium excretion and bone resorption marker. J Bone Metab. 21(3):189–194.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pereira TSS, Bensenor IJM, Melendez JGV, de Faria CP, Cade NV, Mill JG, Molina M. 2015. Sodium and potassium intake estimated using two methods in the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil). Sao Paulo Med J. 133(6):510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez-Rodrigo C, Artiach Escauriaza B, Artiach Escauriaza J, Polanco Allúe I. 2015. Dietary assessment in children and adolescents: issues and recommendations. Nutr Hosp. 26(31 Suppl. 3):76–83.
   Google Scholar
• Pfister R, Michels G, Sharp SJ, Luben R, Wareham NJ, Khaw KT. 2014. Estimated urinary sodium excretion and risk of heart failure in men and women in the EPIC-Norfolk study. Eur J Heart Fail. 16(4):394–402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poulter NR, Khaw KT, Hopwood BE, Mugambi M, Peart WS, Rose G, Sever PS. 1990. The Kenyan Luo migration study: observations on the initiation of a rise in blood pressure. BMJ. 300(6730):967–972.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, Tikhonoff V, Seidlerová J, Richart T, Jin Y, Olszanecka A, Malyutina S, Casiglia E, et al. 2011. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA. 305(17):1777–1785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka T, Okamura T, Miura K, Kadowaki T, Ueshim H, Nakagawa H, Hashimoto T. 2002. A simple method to estimate populational 24-h urinary sodium and potassium excretion using a casual urine specimen. J Hum Hypertens. 16(2):97–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas MC, Moran J, Forsblom C, Harjutsalo V, Thorn L, Ahola A, Wadén J, Tolonen N, Saraheimo M, Gordin D, et al. 2011. The association between dietary sodium intake, ESRD, and all-cause mortality in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 34(4):861–866.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd AS, Macginley RJ, Schollum JB, Johnson RJ, Williams SM, Sutherland WH, Mann JI, Walker RJ. 2010. Dietary salt loading impairs arterial vascular reactivity. Am J Clin Nutr. 91(3):557–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuchihashi T, Kai H, Kusaka M, Kawamura M, Matsuura H, Miura K, Ando K, Maruyama S, Hayabuchi H, Takagi Y, et al. 2013. [Scientific Statement] Report of the Salt Reduction Committee of the Japanese Society of Hypertension (3) Assessment and application of salt intake in the management of hypertension. Hypertens Res. 36(12):1026–1031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization & Pan American Health Organization – Regional Expert Group for cardiovascular disease prevention through population-wide dietary salt reduction (sub-group for research and surveillance) [WHO and PAHO]. 2010. Protocol for population level sodium determination in 24-hour urine samples. [accessed 2018 Dec 11]. https://www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2013/24-h-urine-Protocol-eng.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization [WHO]. 2012. [accessed 2018 Dec 11]. Guideline: sodium intake for adults and children. http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sodium_intake_printversion.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization [WHO]. 2016. SHAKE the salt habit – the SHAKE technical package for salt reduction. [accessed 2018 Dec 11]. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/250135/1/9789241511346-ng.pdf?ua=1.
   Google Scholar
• Yokokawa H, Yuasa M, Nedsuwan S, Moolphate S, Fukuda H, Kitajima T, Minematsu K, Tanimura S, Marui E. 2016. Daily salt intake estimated by overnight urine collections indicates a high cardiovascular disease risk in Thailand. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 25(1):39–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu H, Pollock NK, Kotak I, Gutin B, Wang X, Bhagatwala J, Parikh S, Harshfield GA, Dong Y. 2014. Dietary sodium, adiposity, and inflammation in healthy adolescents. Pediatrics. 133(3):e635–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar